Introduction to Japan
Japan, officially Nippon, a country off the east coast of Asia. It consists of four large islands—Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu, and Shikoku—and more than 3,300 smaller ones, including the Ryukyu chain. Japan is bounded on the north by the Sea of Okhotsk; on the east and south by the Pacific Ocean; on the southwest by the East China Sea; and on the west by the Sea of Japan. Neighboring countries on the Asian mainland are Russia, China, North Korea, and South Korea.
The area of Japan is 145,914 square miles (377,915 km2). Maximum length of the four main islands (northeast-southwest) is roughly 1,250 miles (2,000 km); width, 250 miles (400 km). Honshu, called the mainland by the Japanese, accounts for slightly more than 60 per cent of the country's total area. Next in size are Hokkaido, the northernmost island; Kyushu, the southernmost large island; and Shikoku.
Japan lost some of its possessions as a result of World War II. These included the southern part of the island of Sakhalin, the Kuril Islands, Manchuria, Korea, and Taiwan.
Physical Features
Japan is an island country in the North Pacific Ocean.LandJapan's islands are the exposed parts of mountain chains that rise abruptly from the ocean floor. Some rise from extreme depths—to the east, the Japan Trench plunges to nearly 28,000 feet (8,500 m) below sea level, the Kuril Trench to more than 32,000 feet (10,000m).
About four-fifths of Japan is either hilly or mountainous. Several hundred peaks rise more than 6,500 feet (2,000 m) above sea level. In central Honshu, especially in what are sometimes called the Japanese Alps, numerous peaks crest between 8,000 and 10,500 feet (2,400 and 3,200 m). Fujiyama, a 12,389-foot (3,776-m) volcanic cone southwest of Tokyo, is the country's highest mountain.
Plains and relatively flat areas account for about a fifth of Japan's total area and occur mainly along the coast. Except for the Kanto Plain, on which Tokyo is situated, all are comparatively small. They are, however, of great significance as centers of farming, manufacturing, and population.
Japan lies in a volcanic, earthquake-prone belt called the Ring of Fire, which fringes most of the Pacific basin. About 50 of Japan's 192 volcanoes are classed as active although few erupt. Earthquakes are frequent; most, however, are only minor tremors that do little or no damage. A notable exception was the earthquake of 1923 that devastated Tokyo and Yokohama, killing 100,000 people.
WaterThe rivers of Japan are generally short and swift. The longest is the Shinano, some 230 miles (370 km) in length. Many of the rivers are used for hydroelectric power and to irrigate lowland rice fields. Navigation is of no importance except in the mouths of some of the rivers. Floods, especially those caused by torrential typhoon rains, sometimes cause widespread damage and many deaths.
Virtually all the lakes of Japan are small. The largest is Biwa Lake, covering some 265 square miles (686 km 2 ) on Honshu. Hot springs, associated with underground volcanic activity, are numerous.
Japan has some 16,000 miles (26,000 km) of coastline. Much of the coast is rocky and deeply indented by bays and inlets. The Inland Sea, between Honshu, Shikoku. and Kyushu, is a scenic and generally placid arm of the Pacific, dotted by hundreds of islands.
ClimateThe four main islands of Japan span the same latitude as that between south-ern Georgia and central Maine. The climate, therefore, varies from subtropical in the south to continental in the north. It is often classed as monsoonal because of the cold northwest winds from the Asian mainland in winter and the warm, moist southeast winds from the Pacific in summer. The warm, northward-flowing Kuroshio (Black Current, or Japan Current) washes the south and east coasts as far north as northern Honshu. During winter the current has a particularly tempering and mild effect along the south coast. Northern Honshu and Hokkaido are more influenced by the cold, southward-moving Oyashio (Okhotsk Current). In summer it often brings fog, mist, and cool weather.
Summers are generally hot and sultry except in the north; winters are cold except in the extreme south. Average temperatures for August, the warmest month, vary from about 80°F. (27°C.) in the south to about 68°F. (20°C.) in the north. Averages for January, the coldest month, range between 45° and 20°F. (7°and-7°C).
Mid-June to mid-July is the season of the gentle bai-u, or plum rains. Torrential rains, caused by typhoons, often occur in late summer. The annual precipitation, varying with locality, generally ranges from 40 to 100 inches (1,000 to 2,540 mm). Snow is particularly abundant along the northwest coast, which lies in the path of winter monsoon winds coming across the Sea of Japan.
Vegetation and WildlifeForests cover nearly 70 per cent of Japan. In general, coniferous forests predominate in the higher mountainous areas and in the far north. Fir, spruce, pine, and cedar are among the chief types of trees. Elsewhere in northern Japan and throughout the central part of the country broad-leaved deciduous trees, such as oak, maple, poplar, beech, ash, and elm, prevail. In many areas conifers are mixed among the stands. Most prevalent in the south are subtropical species, mainly broad-leaved evergreens such as camphor and laurel. There are also thickets of bamboo and many kinds of deciduous and coniferous trees. Some tropical plants, including palm trees and bananas, are found in the far south of Kyushu.
Japan has many flowering trees. Especially famous are the flowering cherry trees; the blossom is a national symbol.
The great variety of natural environments in Japan support many kinds of animals. Some 140 species of mammals are known, including bears, wild boars, antelope, deer, badgers, foxes, otters, hares, and squirrels. The Japanese macaque, a short-tailed monkey, is native only to Japan. Mammals living in coastal waters include walruses, whales, and seals.
About 450 species of birds are known on the islands. Water birds and songbirds each account for about a third of the species. There are about 30 kinds of snakes, including two poisonous species on the main islands and four on Okinawa.
Economy
Japan is one of the world's leading industrial nations. During the 1960's and early 1970's, Japan's gross national product (GNP) grew at the phenomenal average rate of about 11 per cent a year—more than twice that of the United States. The worst postwar slump came in the mid-1970's, when worldwide recession brought a sharp decline in economic growth. The economy recovered during the late 1970's and Japan's GNP experienced continuous growth throughout the 1980's.
Most of Japan's postwar economic growth has been due to keen corporate management, a well-educated, industrious labor force, high levels of savings and investment, intensive promotion of industrial development, and vigorous foreign trade. Government has also been a decisive factor. Its influence is powerful and widespread, though exercised mainly through informal, cooperative arrangements with business.
Giant conglomerates, many of which are interlocked in manufacturing, finance, and trade, are of prime importance in the economy. Coexisting with them are many small and medium-sized firms. Government ownership of industry and business is negligible, limited mainly to transportation services. There has been little foreign investment in Japan because of numerous governmental restrictions.
Of increasing concern to the Japanese are the environmental and social consequences of the nation's industrial expansion. In some areas, water and air pollution is severe and increasing rapidly.
Japan's basic unit of currency is the yen.
Manufacturing,which provides most of the nation's exports, is of major importance to Japan's economy. In the output of numerous key products, Japan ranks high among the world's nations—first, for example, in ships, steel, and automobiles and second or third in synthetic fibers, paper, and cement. Japan is also an important producer of many high-technology items, including semiconductors, industrial robots, and optical fibers.
Production is concentrated along the Pacific coast of southern Honshu, primarily in the Tokyo-Yokohama, Osaka-Kobe-Kyoto, and Nagoya areas, and in northern Kyushu. The concentration in the Tokyo-Yokohama area is especially large, accounting for about a third of Japan's manufacturing.
The principal manufacturing activities include the making of industrial machinery, durable consumer goods, iron and steel, ships, chemicals, and textiles.
Industrial machinery and durable consumer goods are of prime importance. They have been largely responsible for Japan's continuing economic growth, rising standard of living, and flourishing export trade. Among the chief products of Japan's machinery industry are factory machines, including machine tools and robots, and heavy electrical equipment. Durable consumer goods are of great variety. They include automobiles, motorcycles, bicycles, television sets, stereo equipment, radios, computers, photographic equipment, and watches.
Japan's iron and steel industry uses imported ore and coal. Production facilities are modern and highly efficient, enabling Japan to export large amounts of iron and steel. Many nonferrous metals are also smelted and refined in Japan.
Japanese shipyards account for as much as half of the tonnage launched in the world each year. Most of the ships are large cargo vessels built for foreign fleets-some of the petroleum supertankers have been in the range of 400,000 to 700,000 tons. Much of Japan's shipbuilding success has stemmed from cost-cutting procedures and the development of new techniques.
The huge, rapidly growing chemical industry concentrates primarily on the production of basic industrial chemicals (largely acids and alkalies), fertilizers, and petrochemicals. As in the years before World War II, the textile industry is large and widespread. Synthetic fabrics are the chief product, replacing cottons, the prewar leader. Wool and silk textiles are also produced.
Other major manufacturing activities include food processing and the making of clothing, Pharmaceuticals, paper and paper products, and ceramics, pottery, and glass. There are also many handicraft industries.
AgricultureJapan has relatively little farmland (about 1/20 as much per capita as in the United States), yet manages to produce nearly three-fourths of the food required by the nation each year. Only about 12 per cent of the land area is used for farming; the rest is too mountainous. In many areas terraced mountain slopes are common.
Farming is extremely intensive in Japan. Crops are painstakingly planted, cultivated, and harvested to obtain maximum results. Much hand labor, large amounts of fertilizer, and a variety of small machinery are used. As a result of these various factors, crop yields and total agricultural production are high. Also contributing to the nation's total production is the long growing season in the south, which allows two successive crops to be grown each year.
Virtually all the farms are small. Most holdings consist of scattered, small plots, totaling 2 1/2 acres (1 hectare) or less. Nearly all the farms are privately owned, partly because of postwar land reforms that made it possible for farmers to acquire the land they worked. A great majority of the farmers supplement their income by working part-time in some other occupation.
Roughly half of the farmland is planted in rice, the principal crop and a traditional food of Japan. Normally, a surplus of rice is produced. Barley, wheat, and several other grains are also grown, but not in large amounts. Other crops include potatoes, sweet potatoes, soybeans, tea, and tobacco. Oranges, apples, peaches, and pears are the most abundantly produced fruit. The raising of silkworms is a specialty of some Japanese farmers.
The livestock industry, which is small but growing because of a rising demand for meat and dairy products, is limited mainly by the small amount of farmland and by the need to produce crops for human consumption.
Fishing, Forestry, and MiningFor many years Japan has been one of the world's foremost fishing nations. Fish is the nation's main protein food. Nearby waters, especially in the Pacific where the warm Kuroshio and cold Oyashio currents meet, are among the finest fishing grounds in the world. The catch is taken by small, family-operated boats along the coast and by larger commercial ships in more distant waters. Some of the larger ships travel great distances and have modern canneries and freezing facilities aboard.
Among the chief fish caught are pollack, mackerel, pilchard (sardine), tuna, squid, and shellfish. Seaweed, used as food, is both gathered wild from the sea. and grown in shallow coastal waters. Japan has strongly resisted international attempts to curtail whaling and remains a major whaling nation.
The raising offish in fresh water ponds has been practiced for many years, yielding carp and other species. Many fish are also taken from inland lakes and streams. The production of cultured pearls is a relatively small but valuable operation, especially around Nagoya and Nagasaki.
Japan's forests, which cover about 70 per cent of the land, are valuable resources, both as sources of wood and as protected national areas. About a third of the forested land is owned by government—-national, prefectural, and local; the rest is owned by individuals and corporations.
Japan's construction and paper industries use large amounts of wood, as do various other industries. Demand far exceeds domestic production, and most of the wood used is imported. To ensure the greatest possible production in the future, the most modern methods of forest management are employed.
Mining is of little importance. Virtually all the known mineral deposits are small, low in quality, and difficult to mine. There are, nevertheless, many mines that operate on a small scale. Together they produce a rather wide range of metallic and nonmetallic minerals, but the total production is small compared with the nation's overall need for minerals. Coal, generally low-grade, is the most plentiful mineral resource and is produced in fairly large amounts. For its energy needs, Japan is heavily dependent on imports, especially oil.
TransportationHighways are Japan's chief means of passenger and freight transport. To ease rapidly increasing traffic problems, construction of an extensive highway system was begun in the 1970's. Extensive road construction continued throughout the 1980's. In 1998 the world's longest suspension bridge was completed, linking Honshu and Awaji Islands.
Until the mid-1960's the railways were the chief means of passenger transportation and the second largest freight carrier. Today they rank second in passenger transport and third, behind coastal shipping, in freight transport. Most of the railway system is operated by companies that are part of the Japan Railways Group, a privately owned concern.
Japan has several high-speed rail (bullet-train) lines that provide passenger service between most major cities. Trains on these lines reach speeds of 170 miles per hour (270 km/h) and more. The Tokyo-Osaka bullet-train line, opened in 1964, was Japan's first high-speed rail line. Hokkaido and Honshu islands are linked by the world's longest tunnel—the 33.5-mile (53.9-km) Seikan railway tunnel. A number of Japanese cities have subway systems.
Coastal shipping has long been important, mainly because of the heavy concentration of population and industry near the sea. The merchant marine, largely destroyed in World War II, is again one of the largest and most modern in the world. Of the many ports, the leading ones are at Yokohama, Kobe, and Nagoya.
Japan Air Lines and All Nippon Airways are Japan's main airlines, providing both international and domestic service. The airports serving Tokyo and Osaka are the chief terminals for foreign and domestic flights. Many foreign international airlines serve Japan.
CommunicationsThe telephone system, which was largely developed by the government, is one of the most technologically advanced in the world. The postal service is also highly advanced and uses much automated equipment.
Television and radio broadcasting is by a publicly owned national network and by numerous privately owned commercial stations. The largest system is that of the Japan Broadcasting Corporation (NHK), a public corporation financed by annual fees paid by all households with television sets. NHK presents mainly cultural, educational, and news programs and, to a lesser extent, entertainment.
The Japanese are avid readers and support one of the largest publishing industries in the world. Asahi Shimbun and Yomiuri Shimbun are the leading newspapers.
Services and Domestic TradeWholesale and retail trade are important economic activities, accounting for about IS per cent of the labor force. The service industries, especially financial services such as banking and insurance, are vital to the nation's economy. During the 1980's Tokyo became one of the world's largest financial centers. Other service industries, including advertising, entertainment, and data processing, are also important.
Foreign TradeThe growth of Japan's foreign trade has been most spectacular since the mid-1960's, resulting in highly favorable balances of trade and the accumulation of large amounts of foreign exchange.
Industrial raw materials, such as petroleum, coal, iron ore, lumber, and cotton, make up the bulk of the nation's imports. No other industrialized nation is so heavily dependent on imported raw materials. The rest of the imports consists mainly of agricultural products, chiefly grains, sugar, and soybeans.
Exports are mainly manufactured products, most notably iron and steel, ships, motor vehicles, heavy electrical equipment, electronic products, photographic equipment, and synthetic fabrics.
The United States is Japan's leading trade partner, exceeding other nations by a large margin in value of imports and exports. The rest of Japan's exports are shipped worldwide, with no one nation particularly prominent. By value, petroleum accounts for a major share of all imports, coming heavily from Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, other Middle East countries, and Indonesia.
The People
The Japanese people are largely of the Mongoloid ethnic group, but little is known about their specific origin. Successive groups of migrating Asians from the mainland are believed to have settled on the islands some time before 300 a.d. Confronting them were the islands' earliest known inhabitants—the Ainus, a people probably of Caucasoid origin. The Japanese people have developed from the mingling of these different ethnic groups. Only a few hundred full-blooded Ainus remain, on Hokkaido.
PopulationJapan's population density is 870 persons per square mile (337 per km 2 ), about 11 times that of the United States. The density of the lowland settled areas far exceeds the national average; the mountainous areas are rather sparsely settled.
Since World War II, Japan has become one of the most highly urbanized countries in the world.
CultureJapanese culture is partly of Chinese origin and partly indigenous, for the Japanese adapted and did not merely imitate the culture of the mainland. Since the middle of the 19th century, Japan has been influenced more by the culture of Western countries than by that of its neighbors. Adoption of many Western ways produced sharp contrasts between the new and the old. Buildings and clothing, for example, are now seen in both traditional and Western styles.
Among forces that have helped to mold the Japanese character are Buddhist, Shinto, and Confucian religious beliefs, the effects of a long feudal period, and the influences of the Japanese industrial revolution. With industrialization came a change from rural to urban living. American influences have been particularly strong since World War II.
The ArtsJapanese art has been strongly influenced by Chinese art. From the mainland came the technique of ink painting on silk and the Buddhist influences in sculpture and painting. A landscape school developed from Zen Buddhism after the 13th century. Japanese prints of the 17th and 18th centuries had a profound eifect on Western art. Distinctive contributions have also been made in architecture. Traditional arts also include landscape gardening; bonsai, the cultivation of dwarf trees; ikebana, flower arranging; ceramics; and origami, paper folding.
Flourishing throughout Japan are no, classical plays in which the actors wear masks depicting their character; bunraku, puppet plays; and kabuki, drama with stylized chanting and dancing. An important part of Japanese culture is the tea ceremony, a highly formal ritual, of which there are many variations. As a way of entertaining guests, it is regarded as the best expression of traditional etiquette. Some of the traditional arts—especially classical Japanese music and dance and the tea ceremony—are part of the repertoire of geisha, female entertainers who perform for groups of men.
Family and HomeIn Japan the family is a traditional and strong institution. It has a formal structure with authority vested in the male head of the family. The wife is expected to be subservient. Children learn discipline and their respective roles in the family at an early age. Sons are given preference over daughters, and the eldest son is superior to all others. However, many of the more repressive aspects of the family, such as that of parents determining marriages, have weakened since World War II.
Japanese homes are noted for their simplicity. Traditional houses are built of wood. In many such houses paper-covered wooden frames, called shoji, are used for windows and doors. Being light and easily moved, they allow much of the house to be opened to the out-of-doors. Some houses are adjoined by landscaped gardens. Rooms usually have thick straw mats, called tatami, on the floor and very little furniture.
Language and ReligionThe Japanese language is unrelated to other Oriental tongues. However, it is written in characters that originally were adapted from Chinese writing.
The Japanese constitution of 1946 provides for freedom of religion and separation of church and state. The two major religions are Shinto and Buddhism. Many Japanese adhere, in varying degrees, to both. Confucianism, though not a religion in the Western sense, has had considerable influence on Japanese personal and social relationships. There are some 1,000,000 Christians, of whom about 40 per cent are Roman Catholics and about 60 per cent Protestants.
EducationSix years of elementary education and three of lower secondary school are free and compulsory for children 6 to 15 years of age. At the three-year upper secondary schools, tuition is charged. Education in Japan is highly competitive, and admission to upper secondary school and to college is determined by rigorous entrance examinations. As a result, many Japanese children spend their after-school hours attending jukas, “cram” schools that specialize in preparing students for entrance examinations and other school tests. Japan has virtually no illiteracy.
There are more than 1,000 institutions of higher education, the majority being private. Junior colleges are attended mainly by women. Technical colleges—most of them government-financed—provide a five-year program for graduates of lower secondary school. The most prominent government university is the University of Tokyo (founded 1877). Large private universities include Keio University (1858), Waseda University (1882), and Nihon University (1889), all in Tokyo.
SportsBaseball, played since the 19th century, is probably Japan's most popular sport. Traditional sports are sumo, a form of wrestling; judo, the Japanese art of self-defense; and kendo, a fencing sport using bamboo staves for swords. Other favorite sports are swimming, track and field, gymnastics, tennis, table tennis, volleyball, and golf.
Government
Under the constitution adopted in 1947, Japan is a monarchy. The emperor is head of state. The legislative body is the Diet, which consists of the House of Representatives (lower house) and the House of Councillors (upper house). The lower house has 500 members, 300 of whom are elected from local districts. The other 200 are selected by the parties to fill their proportional share of seats based on the national vote. Members serve four-year terms. The upper house has 252 members. They are elected for six-year terms, half being chosen every three years. About one-fifth of the upper house is elected at large, the remainder from local districts. The Diet selects from among its members the prime minister (head of government) and the cabinet.
The judicial system is headed by the Supreme Court, the members of which are appointed by the cabinet. The Supreme Court can rule on the constitutionality of laws and governmental actions.
Japan is divided into 47 administrative districts called prefectures. Although the constitution bars the maintenance of military forces, Japan has strong land, sea, and air units called Self-Defense Forces.