Introduction to Germany
Germany (German: Deutschland), or Federal Republic of Germany, a country in central Europe. From 1949 until 1990, as a consequence of World War II, it was divided into West Germany and East Germany. West Germany was a pro-Western democratic state, East Germany a pro-Soviet Communist state. Much hostility existed between them. In 1990, following a democratizing movement that swept through eastern Europe, Germany was reunited.
Germany faces the North and Baltic seas and is bordered by Denmark, Poland, the Czech Republic, Austria, Switzerland, France, Luxembourg, Belgium, and the Netherlands. Germany's area is 137,858 square miles (357,050 km2). Because of World War II territorial losses, this is about 47,000 square miles (122,000 km2) less than the area of prewar Germany. Maximum dimensions are about 530 miles (850 km) north-south and 400 miles (640 km) east-west.
Germany in briefGeneral informationCapital: Berlin.Official language: German.Official name:Bundesrepublik Deutschland (Federal Republic of Germany).National anthem: Third stanza of "Deutschlandlied" ("Song of Germany").Flag and coat of arms: Germany's civil flag has stripes of black, red, and gold (top to bottom). These colors have been associated with German unity since the 1800's. The state flag includes the coat of arms. The coat of arms carries an eagle emblem and has been used since the ancient Romans introduced it into Germany.Largest cities: (2002 official estimate) Berlin (3,392,425); Hamburg (1,728,806); Munich (1,234,692); Cologne (968,639); Frankfurt am Main (643,726); Dortmund (590,831); Stuttgart (588,477); Essen 585,481); Dusseldorf (571,886); Bremen (542,987).Land and climateLand: Germany lies in central Europe. It borders France, Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Poland, Denmark, Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg, and it has a short coastline on the North and Baltic seas. The northern part of the country is mostly flat; the terrain is hilly in central and southern Germany. The Alps run along the border with Austria; the rugged Black Forest lies in the southwest; the Bohemian Forest is along the Czech border. Major rivers include Rhine in the west, Danube in the south, Elbe and Weser in the north, and Oder in the east.Area: 137,847 mi2 (357,022 km2). Greatest distances--north-south, 540 mi (869 km); east-west, 390 mi (628 km). Coastline--574 mi (924 km).Elevation:Highest--9,721 ft (2,963 m) at Zugspitze, in the Alps. Lowest--sea level along the coast.Climate: Mild summers, cool winters. Typical summer daytime highs are in low 70's degrees F (20's degrees C). In winter, typical daytime high is a few degrees above freezing. The Rhine Valley is generally the warmest part of the country; the coastal areas are usually milder than the inland areas. Moderate rainfall in all seasons.GovernmentHead of state: Federal president.Head of government: Federal chancellor.Legislature: Parliament of two houses—the Bundestag (669 members) and the Bundesrat (up to 68 members). The Bundestag is more powerful than the Bundesrat.Executive: Federal chancellor (elected by Bundestag). Chancellor selects Cabinet ministers.Judiciary: Highest court is the Federal Constitutional Court.Political subdivisions: 16 states.PeoplePopulation:Current estimate—82,414,000. 2004 official estimate—82,500,800.Population density: 598 per mi2 (231 per km2).Distribution: 88 percent urban, 12 percent rural.Major ethnic/national groups: 95 percent German, 5 percent other Europeans.Major religions: 34 percent Protestant (chiefly Lutheran); 33 percent Roman Catholic; 4 percent Muslim.EconomyChief products:Agriculture—barley, beef cattle, grapes, hogs, milk, sugar beets, wheat. Manufacturing—chemicals and pharmaceuticals, electrical equipment, machinery, motor vehicles, processed foods and beverages, steel. Mining—coal, potash, and rock salt.Money:Basic unit—euro. One hundred cents equal one euro. The Deutsche mark was taken out of circulation in 2002.Foreign trade:Major exports—chemicals, machinery, motor vehicles. Major imports—food products, petroleum and petroleum products, manufactured goods. Major trading partners—Belgium, France, Italy, Netherlands, United Kingdom, United States.Physical Geography
Germany is a country in central Europe.LandA plains region, called the North German Plain, spans the northern third of Germany. It is largely level to rolling terrain and consists mainly of material left by continental glaciers during the last Ice Age. Much of the land is used for crops or grazing; in some areas, where the land is poorly drained, there are heaths, bogs, or moors. There are also areas of glacially formed hills, some of which rise to nearly 600 feet (180 m) above sea level.
Along the coasts are sandy beaches, offshore islands, tidal flats, and reclaimed tidal land. The southern edge of the plain contains large fertile areas, called Börden, where the soil consists of glacial loess. These areas, constituting some of Germany's most productive farmland, lie along a line curving northeastward from Cologne to Hanover and then southeastward through Leipzig.
South of the North German Plain is an unglaciated upland region that extends southward almost to the Danube River. Almost the entire region is marked by a great variety of landforms, including low mountains, plateaus, basins, escarpments, and scenic valleys.
The dominant features in the upland region are the mountains. Many of the mountainous areas are heavily wooded and have the German word Wald (forest) as part of their names. The greatest elevations occur in the Schwarzwald (Black Forest); the highest peak there is Feldberg, which reaches 4,898 feet (1,493 m). Flanking the middle section of the Rhine River are the Hunsrück, Eifel, Taunus, and Westerwald, which with other uplands are known collectively as the Rhenish Slate Mountains. Other uplands include the Bohemian and Bavarian forests, the Fichtel and Harz mountains, and the Rhön. Spessart, Odenwald, and Haardt. In east-central Germany are the Thuringian Forest and parts of the Harz and Ore mountains; few peaks in these three areas rise more than 4,000 feet (1,200 m).
The most scenic and famous valley in Germany is that of the middle section of the Rhine, between Bingen and Bonn. This area is often called the Romantic Rhine and is known for its steep, vineyard-covered slopes, ruins of old castles, and picturesque towns. The upper Rhine valley, from about Mainz to the Swiss border, is a relatively broad rift valley containing major industrial and agricultural areas.
South of the Danube River lies the Alpine Foreland, also called the Bavarian Plateau. It is covered largely by material left by alpine glaciers during the last Ice Age and consists of fairly level to rolling agricultural land and hilly terrain. In the extreme south the Bavarian Alps thrust upward abruptly. The loftiest peak, reaching 9,721 feet (2,963 m), is the Zugspitze, southwest of Munich in the rugged Wetterstein range.
WaterThe rivers of Germany are valuable natural assets, as many of them are used for navigation, municipal and industrial water supplies, and, to a lesser extent, hydroelectric power.
Most of Germany is drained by the Rhine, Danube, Weser, and Elbe and their tributaries. Except for the Danube, which drains most of southern Germany and flows eastward to the Black Sea, rivers drain generally northward and northwestward to either the North Sea or the Baltic Sea.
The largest system is that of the Rhine, which includes the Neckar, Main, Mosel, Ruhr, and Lippe rivers. The Elbe is second only to the Rhine in terms of length, the amount of water it carries, and the size (in Germany) of its drainage basin. The Oder and Neisse form most of Germany's boundary with Poland.
Germany's lakes are generally small and of glacial origin. Most lie in or near the Alps or on the North German Plain. They are particularly numerous in the morainic hills south of the Baltic Sea. The largest lake is Lake Constance, or Bodensee, which is shared with Switzerland and Austria.
Mineral springs, both hot and cold, are one of Germany's most distinctive water features. Internationally famed spas and resorts have developed around some of the springs. Probably most notable are those at Baden-Baden in the Black Forest.
ClimateGermany lies farther north than the United States, excluding Alaska, but its climate is not severe. It is a transitional kind between the mild, oceanic climate of north-western Europe and the much harsher continental climate farther east. In general, westerly winds prevail throughout the year, bringing the ocean's warmth inland during winter and its coolness during summer. Periods of either extremely hot or cold weather are brief and infrequent, coming with the passage of air masses from the Eurasian interior.
The ocean's influence is strongest along the North Sea coast, where winters are damp and moderately cold and summers warm to cool. Temperatures average near 32° F. (0° C.) during January and between 60° and 65° F. (16° and 18° C.) during July. Precipitation, including small amounts of snow, is about 30 inches (760 mm) a year.
Away from the coast, to the south and east, summers become somewhat warmer and winters slightly colder. Precipitation is a little less than along the coast, and more of it falls as snow. There is also a tendency toward clearer, sunnier weather. Temperatures normally average somewhat below freezing during January and around 65° F. (18° C.) during July.
In the higher upland areas and in the mountainous parts of Germany the climate is influenced considerably by increased elevation, which results in lower temperatures throughout the year and more abundant precipitation, especially snow. Deep snow normally covers the higher parts of the Alps during winter.
Economy
After the division of Germany into two separate countries in 1949, the East and West German economies developed in radically different ways; East Germany's was based on central planning and government ownership of virtually all productive resources and West Germany's was built upon private enterprise with some government regulation.
West Germany underwent virtually unbroken economic expansion after World War II, when much of the country lay in ruins. In just a few decades it rose to become a world economic power. Many factors combined to produce this remarkable recovery, often called an “economic miracle.” Among them were Marshall Plan financial aid; a large, highly skilled, energetic labor force; the replacement of war-ruined factories with up-to-date ones; and membership in the European Community (forerunner of the European Union).
Also during this period, West Germany's standard of living became one of the highest in the world. Its total economic output was surpassed in Europe only by that of the Soviet Union. In international trade West Germany was a world leader, normally second only to the United States.
East Germany's economy generally lagged behind that of West Germany, largely because East Germany had fewer resources and a much smaller population. Recovery from the devastation of World War II was slow. It was hindered by heavy reparations to the Soviet Union, lack of outside financial aid, low levels of investment, and severe labor shortages, resulting partly from the escape of several million workers to the West. Dislike of the Soviet-imposed economic system also hampered development. It was not until the early 1960's that industrial output reached prewar levels.
By the late 1980's, East Germany's economy had grown to be one of the most productive economies in the Communist world. Also, among all Communist countries. East Germany had the highest income per person. However, East German products were generally of lower quality than those made in West Germany and most East German factories were older and less productive than those found in West Germany.
In 1990 East and West Germany were reunified. Because their economies were so different, the integration of the East German economy into that of West Germany proved to be very difficult and took many years to complete.
Numerous problems occurred after reunification, especially in the new eastern state. Among these problems was a rise in unemployment as demand for products made in the eastern states declined and many outdated factories closed. Also, wage levels in the eastern states did not keep pace with rising prices, causing hardship for many. The enormous costs involved in updating the former East German economy have meant slow economic growth for Germany. Despite the many problems associated with the economic integration of the new eastern states into the market economy of the Federal Republic, the nation's economy as a whole remains one of the strongest in the world.
ManufacturingGermany's manufacturing industries are extremely diverse, producing a great variety of consumer and industrial goods. The metallurgical, mechanical and electrical engineering, and chemical industries were well-established before World War II and were revived with great success after the war. Their products include iron and steel, motor vehicles, industrial machinery, machine tools, turbines, generators, electrical appliances, photographic and optical equipment, plastics, fertilizers, and dyes. There is also large-scale production of electronic equipment; textiles and clothing; foods and beverages, especially beer; wood and paper products; leather goods; and ceramics. High-quality handicrafts are also produced.
Since Germany began industrializing in the mid-19th century, the largest concentration of heavy industry has been in the region called the Ruhr. Local coal provided the basis for the industrial development here. Major cities in the Ruhr include Dortmund, Duisburg, Düsseldorf, and Essen. Berlin is the single largest producer of manufactured goods. Other manufacturing areas include those in and around Cologne, Frankfurt am Main, Hamburg, Mannheim, Ludwigshafen, Munich, Dresden, Zwickau, Magdeburg, Leipzig, Halle, and Erfurt.
AgricultureThough not one of the major sectors of Germany's economy, agriculture is important in that it provides a large share of the nation's food.
During 1949–90, virtually all the farms in East Germany were owned and operated by the government while in West Germany farms were privately owned and operated. After reunification, the German government began to privatize farms in eastern Germany. Farms in Germany average about 50 acres (20 hectares), and about 4 per cent of the country's workforce is in agriculture.
Livestock products, especially beef, pork, and dairy items, account for the greatest share of Germany's agricultural income. The principal crops are grains, mainly wheat, barley, oats, and rye; sugar and fodder beets; and potatoes. Apples, plums, cherries, peaches, and pears are widely grown. Grapes from the southwest, especially the Rhine and Mosel valleys, yield virtually all of Germany's wine.
Mining, Forestry, and FishingCoal is the most important mineral in Germany. The nation is a major producer of anthracite and a world leader in the production of lignite. Anthracite is produced primarily in western Germany, especially in the Ruhr and in the Saar. It is used mainly by the iron and steel industry. Lignite is mined largely in eastern Germany, especially near Cottbus. It is used chiefly to generate electric power and to produce coal gas, and by the chemical industry as a raw material.
Germany is also a major producer of potash and gypsum. Other minerals produced include lead, zinc, copper, nickel, salt, and sulfur. Germany imports most of its iron ore, mainly from Brazil, Ukraine, Canada, and Australia.
Forests cover almost 30 per cent of Germany but yield only a small portion of the wood needed annually. They consist mainly of conifers, especially spruces, pines, and firs. Beech, oak, and birch are among the common deciduous trees. Germany pioneered the practice of scientific forestry, and its forests have long been considered to be among the finest in the world.
Germany's fish catch is fairly large, but far below that of the European leaders. It consists primarily of cod, redfish, pollock, mackerel, and herring, taken from the North and Baltic seas and distant Atlantic waters. Cuxhaven, Bremerhaven, Hamburg, Kiel, and Rostock are the chief fishing ports.
Transportation and CommunicationsGermany's highway system, especially in the western states, has undergone almost continuous improvement since World War II to accommodate increasing amounts of traffic. The system includes an extensive network of expressways called autobahns. Most road links between the eastern and western states that were severed after World War II have been reestablished.
The integration of the railway system of the former East Germany into that of the Federal Republic is underway. In general, the western railways are more modern and efficient than those of eastern Germany. Most of the main-line trackage is electrified. In 1991 Germany's first high-speed electric train, the Intercity Express, began operation between Hamburg and Munich.
Few countries use rivers and canals as intensively as does Germany. The Rhine system is the waterway most heavily used. Among the chief canals are the Mittelland Canal, which extends east-west across Germany, and the Dortmund-Ems, Kiel, Oder-Spree, Oder-Havel, and Elbe-Havel canals. The Rhine-Main-Danube Canal links the Danube and Main rivers through Nuremberg, allowing traffic to move between the North and Black seas. Duisburg is the chief inland port and probably the busiest inland port in the world. Hamburg, Bremen. Wilhelmshaven, and Rostock are major maritime ports. Germany has a large merchant marine.
Lufthansa German Airlines, which is partially owned by the government, is the national carrier. It provides domestic and international service. There is also service by numerous foreign airlines operating through a number of international airports, chief of which are near Frankfurt and Berlin.
Germany has more than 350 daily newspapers. Major dailies include the Bild-Zeitung, the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, and the Süddeutsche Zeitung. There are both nonprofit and commercial radio and television stations.
Trade and TourismGermany depends heavily on international trade to maintain its economy. Trade is greatest with other members of the European Union, especially France, Great Britain, the Netherlands, and Italy. There is also considerable trade with the United States. Trade with the countries of eastern Europe is relatively small, but rapidly increasing. Principal imports include mineral fuels, particularly petroleum; machinery; chemicals; and food. Exports include machinery, transportation equipment, electrical equipment and appliances, and chemicals.
Germany's basic unit of currency is the euro.
Tourism is a major industry. Spas, resorts, scenic mountains, the Rhine valley, and well-preserved medieval towns and villages are among the chief attractions. One of the world's largest international trade fairs is held in Leipzig twice a year. The international book fair held annually at Frankfurt am Main is a major event in the publishing industry.
The People
Except for extremely small minorities, such as the Danes in the north and people of Slavic descent in the east, the people are German. They are the descendants of Germanic, Celtic, and other tribes that began settling in the country as early as the fifth century B.C. One early tribe was the Teutones, from whom the term Teutonic (meaning Germanic) is derived.
PopulationThe population of Germany, according to a 1994 official estimate, is about 81,539,000. The population density is in excess of 590 persons per square mile (228 per km2), more than eight times that of the United States. The population is predominantly urban.
Language and ReligionGerman is one of the Teutonic tongues of the Indo-European family. A number of dialects are spoken. High German, which developed from the dialects of southern and central Germany, is the official and literary language. Low German, prevailing in parts of the north, is sometimes considered a dialect and sometimes a separate language.
The German constitution guarantees freedom of religion. About one third of the people belong to the Evangelical Church (an association of Lutheran and several other Protestant churches); another third of the people are Roman Catholics. Protestants are in the majority in the northern and the eastern states while Catholics are more numerous in the southern states, especially Bavaria. Nearly 5 per cent of Germans are Muslims.
EducationGermany has almost no illiteracy. Elementary and secondary education is free, and attendance is compulsory from 6 to 18. Young persons not enrolled in full-time school beyond age 15 must attend a part-time vocational school for three years. The constitution leaves most of the power to design and administer educational systems to the states. Systems vary, but the basic structure is as follows:
All children attend primary, or basic, school (Grundschule), the first four years of the eight-year elementary school (Volksschule). They may then (1) continue in elementary school, after which they attend vocational school; (2) attend a six-year intermediate school (Mittelschule, or Realschule); or (3) attend a nine-year high school (Gymnasium). There are three types of Gymnasia: Modern Language, Classical Language, and Mathematics-Science.
During 1949–90, education in East Germany emphasized Communist ideological training and preparation for specific jobs or professions and did not provide a general education. Elementary and secondary education were combined in 10- and 12-year polytechnic schools. After the reunification of Germany in 1990, state governments in the former East Germany began to reform their curriculums and educational systems to conform to those of the Federal Republic.
Institutions of higher learning in Germany include universities, technical colleges, and scientific colleges. Among notable universities are those at Berlin, Bonn, Cologne, Göttingen, Heidelberg, Munich, Leipzig, Dresden, and Tübingen. There are also schools for adult education, the arts and music, theology, and teacher training.
Sports and RecreationWalking, hiking, skiing, cycling, swimming, and rowing are popular activities for all ages. Many Germans belong to local Turnvereine (gymnastics clubs). All schools have sports programs, and Federal Youth Games are held each summer and winter. Soccer has become the most popular active team game as well as the favorite spectator sport. Annual auto races are held at the Nuremberg track.
CultureGermany has one of the richest cultural heritages in the western world. German musical tradition reaches back to the medieval minnesingers and meistersingers. Johann Sebastian Bach was one of the great composers of the Baroque period. The composers Ludwig van Beethoven and Johannes Brahms were masters of the classical era. Richard Wagner was an important composer of the Romantic period. Notable modern German composers include Richard Strauss, Paul Hindemith, and Carl Orff. Many annual music festivals are held, including the Wagner Festival at Bayreuth and the Beethoven Festival at Bonn.
Germany has produced many leading poets, dramatists, and novelists. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Friedrich von Schiller were leaders of the German Classicist movement during the 18th century. Max Reinhardt, Bertolt Brecht, and others made Berlin a center of modern drama after World War I. The German authors Gerhart Hauptmann, Thomas Mann, and Heinrich Böll have won the Nobel Prize for literature.
Painters of distinction from Germany include Albrecht Dürer, Hans Holbein the Younger, and Lucas Cranach. The Expressionist movement began in Germany with Franz Marc and Vasily Kandinsky, a Russian emigré.
Germany has produced many notable architects, philosophers, and scientists. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Walter Gropius were leading architects in the 20th century, and Germany was home of the Bauhaus school of art and design. Major contributions to philosophic thought were made by Immanuel Kant, Georg Friedrich Hegel, Arthur Schopenhauer, and Friedrich Nietzsche. Important scientific discoveries were made by the astronomer Johannes Kepler, the chemist Justus von Liebig, and the physicists Hermann von Helmholtz and Albert Einstein.
Government
During 1949–90, there were two German nations: the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) and the German Democratic Republic (East Germany). East Germany's government, which was controlled by the Communist party, collapsed in 1989 and a democracy was established. A new government was elected in 1990. It opened negotiations with West German leaders regarding reunification. Leaders from both nations agreed that reunification would take place under the West German constitution, which provided for reunification on a state-by-state basis.
In preparation for reunification, the East German government reorganized the country into five states. In October, 1990, these five states became part of the Federal Republic of Germany and East Germany ceased to exist.
The constitution of Germany, called the Basic Law, describes Germany as a “democratic and social federal state.” It consists of 16 states. (See table on next page.) The federation has the powers expressed and enumerated in the constitution, while the states have all the other powers. There is also a field of concurrent powers in which both may legislate, but “federal law overrides state law.” The constitution shows a strong centralist tendency. But the federation uses state and local authorities to carry its laws into execution.
The Executive. The president is head of the state but has little power. He is elected by the Federal Convention, which consists of the Bundestag (lower house) and an equal number of members elected by the state legislatures. He is elected for a five-year term and may be reelected once.
The real power is in the hands of the chancellor, who is nominated by the president and elected by the Bundestag. The cabinet ministers are appointed and dismissed by the president on the proposal of the chancellor. The chancellor is responsible to the Bundestag, but it can dismiss him from office only by electing a successor at the same time. This provision gives the chancellor great power.
The Legislature consists of the Bundestag (Federal Assembly) and the Bundesrat (Federal Council). The 622 Bundestag members are elected in universal, direct elections for four-year terms. The Bundesrat consists of delegates of the state governments; each state has from three to five delegates, according to population, but each delegation votes as a unit. Laws are passed by the Bundestag, but the Bundesrat has a limited veto. The Bundesrat is a legislative and administrative body; it is not the equal of the Bundestag, but has considerable power.
The Judiciary consists of district, regional, and superior regional courts, with a Supreme Court at the federal level. There are also administrative, labor, social, and financial courts, and a special court to interpret the constitution.
State Government is organized on the principle of parliamentary democracy. The popularly elected legislatures have one chamber, except in Bavaria. Each state has a cabinet headed by a minister president.
The Military Services were reestablished in 1952. The Minister for Defense is commander of the armed forces, which consist of an army, navy, and air force. Parliament has strong control over military policy.