Turkey: A Comprehensive Overview of History, Geography & Culture

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Introduction to Turkey (country)

Turkey, or Republic of Turkey, a country of western Asia and southeastern Europe. Asian Turkey occupies Anatolia, the peninsula of Asia Minor.

Facts in brief about TurkeyCapital: Ankara.Official language: Turkish.Official name: Turkiye Cumhuriyeti (Republic of Turkey).Area: 302,535 mi2 (783,562 km2). Greatest distances—north-south, 465 mi (748 km); east-west, 1,015 mi (1,633 km). Coastline—2,211 mi (3,558 km).Elevation:Highest—Mount Ararat, 16,946 ft (5,165 m) above sea level. Lowest—sea level along the coast.Population: Current estimate—74,824,000; density, 247 per mi2 (95 per km2); distribution, 67 percent urban, 33 percent rural. 2000 census—67,803,927.Chief products:Agriculture—barley, corn, cotton, fruits, potatoes, sugar beets, wheat. Manufacturing—fertilizers, iron and steel, machinery, motor vehicles, processed foods and beverages, pulp and paper products, textiles and clothing.National anthem: "Istiklal Marsi" ("Independence March").Flag: Turkey's flag, adopted in 1936, has the crescent and five-pointed star on a red background. The crescent and star are traditional symbols of the Islamic faith.Money:Basic unit—new Turkish lira. One hundred new kurus equal one new lira.

Physical Geography

Turkey is a country that lies between the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea.Land

Virtually all of Asian Turkey is made up of the broad, semiarid Anatolian Plateau, which slopes from an average elevation of roughly 7,000 feet (2,130 m) above sea level in the east to about 2,500 feet (760 m) in the west. Rimming the plateau on the northeast are the steep and rugged Pontic Mountains, where a few peaks from 11,000 feet (3,350 m) to almost 13,000 feet (3,960 m) lie near the Black Sea coast.

The Taurus Mountains form most of the southern edge of the plateau along the Mediterranean Sea. The eastern third of the plateau is covered by a series of mountain ranges trending east-west and becoming increasingly higher to the east. Many of the higher peaks are volcanic in origin, including Mount Ararat, which at 16,945 feet (5,165 m) is Turkey's highest point.

The flat or gently rolling surface of the central and western plateau is interrupted by numerous ranges of hills and low mountains with a generally east-west trend. In extreme western Asia Minor, a number of broad, fertile valleys lie between ranges that extend on into the Aegean Sea to form a highly irregular coast with many peninsulas and islands. European Turkey consists of the low Ergene River basin, which is ringed by hills and mountains.

Most of Turkey is geologically young and earthquakes are fairly frequent.

Water

Europe and Asia meet in Turkey at the natural waterway formed by the narrow Bosporus and Dardanelles straits and the Sea of Marmara. Providing the only outlet from the Black Sea, the straits have long been strategically important. The Black Sea and Mediterranean Sea coasts have few good natural harbors, but there are a number of deep bays and inlets on the Aegean coast.

Turkey's rivers are generally short and tend to have widely varying flows from season to season. Notable exceptions are the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in the southeast and the Kizil and Sakarya in the north. None of the country's rivers is navigable; the valleys, however, provide access routes to the interior. Some rivers lack outlets to the sea and drain into interior basins, forming salt lakes such as Tuz, Beysehir and Van. Around Bursa in the northwest are several large freshwater lakes.

Climate

Moderating influences of the Mediterranean and Black seas are not felt in Turkey's interior, principally because of the barrierlike coastal mountains and the high elevation of the plateau itself. The plateau has a relatively severe continental climate, with hot summers and cold winters. July temperatures average 72° F. (22° C.) at Ankara and 65° F. (18° C.) at Erzurum; January averages are 32° F. (0° C.) at Ankara and 16° F. (–9° C.) at Erzurum. Snowfall is heavy in much of the eastern portion of the plateau, where snow remains on the ground for up to four months. Annual precipitation is from 10 to 20 inches (250 to 500 mm); it occurs largely from November to May. Less than 10 inches falls in the basin around Lake Tuz, making this area the driest in the country.

Turkey's coastal regions have a Mediterranean climate; winters are mild and moderately rainy, and summers are hot and dry. Izmir, for example, has an average January temperature of 48° F. (9° C.) and an average July temperature of 82° F. (28° C.) and receives 26 inches (660 mm) of precipitation annually. The Black Sea coast has somewhat lower average temperatures and higher rainfall than the Aegean and Mediterranean coasts. By far the rainiest area of Turkey is the seaward slope of the Pontic Mountains; yearly totals of 80 to 100 inches (2,030 to 2,540 mm) are common here.

Vegetation

Most of the plateau is too dry for trees and is covered with steppe grasses. Forests of oak, beech, and pine are found in the mountains and are especially heavy in the Pontic Mountains east of Samsun. Most of European Turkey and the coastal low-lands of Asia Minor are covered with brush and scrub growth typical of lands bordering the Mediterranean.

Economy

Turkey is prosperous in comparison with most Asian countries, but is poor when compared to many European nations. It is largely an agricultural country and must import much of its machinery and industrial equipment and many of its raw materials. Nevertheless, considerable progress has been made in developing a modern economy; development began in the early 20th century.

Industrialization has been achieved largely through efforts of the government working under a series of five-year plans initiated in 1963. During the 1970's the economy declined significantly. Reasons for the decline included political instability, rising foreign debt, and the government's policy of limiting foreign trade by establishing import quotas and high tariffs. During the 1980's the Turkish economy improved, largely because of government stability and a new policy of encouraging foreign trade. However, longstanding problems such as high unemployment and a high rate of inflation remained.

The government owns and operates many of the country's transportation facilities and large manufacturing plants, banks, and mines. There is, however, a growing private sector.

Agriculture

Turkey produces enough food for its own population and also exports agricultural goods. Roughly half of the labor force works in agriculture. Large areas on the plateau are either cultivated or grazed, but most of this land has relatively low productivity. The richest and most productive farmlands are near the coasts. Most farms are relatively small, averaging less than 20 acres (8 hectares). Dam projects have made irrigation possible in a number of areas.

Wheat, barley, corn, and other cereals are the dominant crops. They are grown most extensively on the plateau. Sugar beets are also a major crop. Significant, too, are melons, tomatoes, potatoes, grapes, sunflower seed, cotton, olives, apples, and citrus fruits. Virtually all the subtropical crops, including citrus fruits, cotton, hazelnuts, melons, oranges, olives, tobacco, and tomatoes, are grown near the coasts.

Livestock raising is a significant part of the economy. Sheep and goats graze in large numbers on the plateau and on mountain slopes. Turkey is a major producer and exporter of mohair, obtained from Angora goats. Cattle and buffalo are used as draft animals as well as sources of dairy products and meat.

Manufacturing

is the largest single contributor to Turkey's economy, accounting for about 20 per cent of the labor force. Food processing and the making of textiles are the chief manufacturing activities. Basic heavy industries, most of which are government undertakings, include the manufacturing of iron and steel, chemicals, cement, and fertilisers. Also significant is the manufacturing of motor vehicles, machinery, petroleum products, and paper goods.

Much of Turkey's manufacturing is located in the northwest, especially in Istanbul and adjacent areas; the rest is primarily in the Ankara, Izmir, and Adana areas. Many products, including rugs and metalwares, are still made in traditional ways as handicrafts.

Forestry, Fishing, and Mining

Turkey's meager forests yield relatively small amounts of timber suitable for cutting into lumber. Most of the production is scrub and brush that is used for fuelwood.

There is relatively little fishing except in coastal waters.

Turkey has substantial mineral resources, but some of them are little developed, partly because of poor transportation in many areas. Petroleum, natural gas, and lignite coal are the chief mineral fuels produced. Other production includes chromium, iron, manganese, copper, boron, and sulfur. Turkey is a leading world source of boron and chromium.

Energy

Other than coal and hydroelectric power, almost the entire energy required by Turkey is imported. Natural gas imports have also been gradually increasing, as this form of energy has been replacing coal in heating urban buildings, thereby helping to reduce air pollution.

International Trade

The chief imports of Turkey include chemicals, machinery, iron and steel, motor vehicles, and petroleum. The country's major exports consist of clothing and textiles, iron and steel, and other manufactured goods. Fruits, nuts, and vegetables are also important exports.

Tourism

has become a significant activity in Turkey, with millions of European and Russian tourists visiting the country every year. The visitors spend beach holidays on the Mediterranean and Aegean coasts, and also visit Turkey's cities. Ancient sites of Turkey, such as Troy and Pergamum in northwestern Turkey, and Ephesus, near present-day Izmir; and the unusual rock formations and other natural wonders of Cappadocia in east-central Turkey and the Eastern Plateau also attract a large number of visitors..

Transportation

Turkey's mountainous terrain has hindered the development of a good transportation system. The national railway system serves mainly to connect the larger cities. Most of Turkey's main roads are paved.

Istanbul, on the Bosporus, is by far the largest Turkish port. Izmir is the principal Aegean port and is second only to Istanbul in tonnage handled. Other ports include Samsun and Zonguldak on the Black Sea and Mersin and Iskenderun on the Mediterranean. Istanbul and Ankara have the busiest international airports. The state-owned Turkish Airlines connects most of Turkey's larger cities and provides foreign service.

The People

About 90 per cent of the people are of Turkish origin. Seven per cent are Kurds. The rest include Arabs, Circassians, Greeks, Georgians, and Armenians.

Population

The greatest concentrations of people are on the Black Sea coast, the area from Istanbul to Bursa, and in the Izmir and Antakya regions. About 74 per cent of Turkey's inhabitants live in urban areas; the rest live on farms or in small towns and villages.

Language and Religion

Turkish, the official language, is spoken by most of the people. It originated in Central Asia and is a Ural-Altaic language. An alphabet with Latin rather than Arabic characters has been in use since 1928. Kurdish is the language of the Kurds. )

Although Islam is no longer the state religion of Turkey, almost all Turks are Muslims, mainly of the Sunni branch of Islam. Many of the traditional Muslim laws and customs, however, were abolished by the government after church and state were separated in 1924. Non-Muslims, which include both Christians and Jews, have freedom of worship.

Education

Primary education is required of all children from age 7 to 12. State schools, which are free and coeducational, are under the supervision of the Ministry of National Education. They include primary and secondary schools (divided into middle schools and the more advanced lycées). In addition, there are teacher-training, vocational, and technical schools. Private schools are also supervised by the Ministry of National Education.

Religious instruction, discontinued in 1923, was made optional in 1947. Compulsory education of illiterate adults was introduced in 1929. The literacy rate is about 75 per cent.

Istanbul University, established in 1453 and reorganized in 1900, is one of the oldest universities in the world and is the largest in Turkey. Also located in Istanbul is the Technical University of Istanbul (1773). At Ankara are the University of Ankara (1946), noted for studies in Hittite and Sumerian civilization, and the Middle East Technical University (1956). Other institutions of higher education in Turkey include Aegean University (1955) at Izmir, Atatürk University (1957) in Erzurum, and Black Sea University (1963) at Trabzon.

Culture

Turkey is a cultural as well as a geographical bridge between East and West. Since the mid-19th century, Western ideas and institutions have had a noticeable impact on Turkish life, marking a distinct break with the past.

Premodern culture was a blend of several heritages, mainly from the Arabs and Persians, but also from the Byzantines and earlier peoples of Asia Minor. Every phase of life was influenced by Islam. Much of the literature was religious and mystical in character. Architecture was dominated by the elaborately ornamented mosques that still abound throughout the country. Paintings usually depicted rulers and battles. Minor arts, such as calligraphy, illumination, and carpet making, flourished.

With modernization came a new literature, which while utilizing Western techniques fostered Turkish nationalism. Modern Turkish music draws on both classical Turkish and European sources. Painting has been influenced by various Western schools of art. The cultural centers of modern Turkey are Istanbul and Ankara.

Important dates in Turkey1500 B.C.The Hittites ruled in Anatolia.63 B.C.The Roman general Pompey conquered Anatolia.A.D. 330Constantine the Great established a new capital of the Roman Empire at Byzantium and renamed the town Constantinople.1071The Seljuk Turks defeated the Byzantine forces in the Battle of Manzikert, which led to the conquest of most of Anatolia.1326The Ottoman Turks captured Bursa, which marked the beginning of the Ottoman Empire.1453The Ottomans captured Constantinople, ending the Byzantine Empire.1783-1914The Ottoman Empire lost much of its territory in a series of military defeats.1908The Young Turks revolted against the government.1914-1918In World War I, the Ottoman Empire allied with Germany and lost much of its remaining territory.1923Mustafa Kemal (Ataturk) set up the Republic of Turkey and began a program to modernize the nation.1960Turkish army units overthrew the government and ruled until free elections were held in 1961.1974Turkish forces invaded Cyprus.1980-1983Army units again controlled the government.1999A powerful earthquake struck northwestern Turkey, killing more than 17,000 people.Sports and Recreation

The national sport of Turkey is soccer. Wrestling, gymnastics, and horseback riding are also popular sports. Folk dancing in regional costumes is a favorite pastime.

Government

Turkey has been a republic since 1923. Under the constitution of the Third Republic (1982), executive power is vested in the president, legislative power in the National Assembly, and judicial power in independent courts.

The president (head of state) is chosen by the Grand National Assembly for a seven-year term. He is assisted by a state advisory council, composed of former presidents and military chiefs of staff. From among the Grand National Assembly, the president appoints a prime minister (head of government). The Council of Ministers (cabinet) is formed by ministers nominated by the prime minister and appointed by the president.

The Grand National Assembly is composed of 550 deputies popularly elected for five-year terms. The president has the power to dissolve the Grand National Assembly and rule under emergency powers.

The judicial system consists of civil, administrative, military, and constitutional courts. The regular civil courts include courts of first instance (courts having original jurisdiction), central criminal courts, and commercial courts. The highest tribunal is the court of cassation, which is a court of appeals. The Constitutional Court of Turkey determines the legality of laws passed by the legislature.

There is universal suffrage in Turkey. Voting is by secret ballot.

Turkey is divided into 81 provinces it calls ils, each named for its chief city. An il is subdivided into ilces, and these in turn into bucaks. At the head of each il are a governor, representing the central government, and an elected council.

Turkey maintains a regular army, navy, and air force. In addition, there is the Jandarma, a rural police force. Military service is compulsory for nearly all men between the ages of 20 and 41. The Turkish military has a high status, having the power to overrule, in effect, certain government decisions.