Understanding Thinking: A Comprehensive Overview

Thinking

Introduction to Thinking

Thinking. Modern psychologists do not agree on any one definition of the term, but all agree that thinking is a mental activity involving the use of symbols, such as words or images. Most other mental processes involve primarily direct responses to stimuli. In perceiving, for example, a person is aware of an object or event that is currently presented to his senses. In recalling what he has perceived, or in anticipating something, he uses such symbols as words or images to represent objects and events. Recalling and anticipating are, therefore, forms of thinking. Among other forms of thinking are dreaming, daydreaming, and problem solving. (It was once believed that all thinking is conscious, but psychologists now recognize as thinking some mental activities of which the person may not be consciously aware.)

Thought is a term sometimes used to describe the product of thinking, such as a recollection, opinion, or decision. It is also used as a synonym for thinking.

In the past, psychologists and philosophers believed that thinking was an exclusively human type of behavior. However, studies of animal behavior begun in the late 1800's show that certain animals other than humans are capable of some forms of thinking.

The development of automation, especially in regard to automatic control systems, has led some researchers to claim that the term thinking can be properly applied to the activity of such machines as computers. Others believe that the thought processes of humans and other thinking animals are fundamentally different from the “artificial thinking” of machines, whose action depends entirely upon programs worked out by human intelligence.

Thinking is primarily a function of the nervous system, and especially of the cerebral cortex, or gray matter of the brain. If the cerebral cortex is damaged, thinking ability is impaired.

There is also a relation between specific areas of the cortex and certain thought processes. For example, direct electrical stimulation of the cortex of the temporal (side) lobes of a person's brain brings about the recall of past experiences, although no way has been found to determine what material will be recalled. Injury to the same cortical area decreases or destroys memory. This localization is more pronounced in humans than in other animals. However, even in humans the entire cerebral cortex seems to be involved to some extent in any thought process.

Processes In Thinking

Imagery

In the late 1800's and early 1900's there was much controversy among psychologists as to the dependence of thinking upon images, the mental reconstruction of sense experiences. Someone planning to buy a car will probably “see” it, “hear” the sound of its motor, and “feel” the way it handles—perhaps while lying awake the night before the purchase. Images may relate to any of the senses, but most of them are visual.

A series of experiments conducted in the early 1900's by a group of German psychologists showed that some individuals carry on certain forms of thinking without the use of images. Further research confirmed these findings. However, most people rely in large part upon imagery when thinking.

Language

Some older definitions of thinking identify it with or make it dependent upon language. Modern psychologists find such definitions too narrow, but concede that words are an aid to thinking and are the most important and extensively used symbols in thinking.

Concepts

Perhaps the most important process in thinking is conceptualizing, the forming of concepts. According to some psychologists, concepts are formed when characteristics common to certain objects or events are categorized. A baby learns that his family's pet cat is similar to the neighbor's cat by seeing and touching both animals and hearing them purr. When the baby encounters another cat, he perceives the similarity and classifies the strange animal with the familiar ones. The baby has thus formed a concept of a certain kind of animal.

Other psychologists distinguish this simple type of categorizing from identifying and classifying on a more abstract or symbolic level. They reserve the term concept for cases that do not depend upon the presence of a stimulus object or event. For example, a person can conceive of a number as being “divisible” without having before him a group of objects to divide; he has formed the concept of “divisibility.” He can form such concepts as “justice” or “velocity” on the basis of other concepts.

Conceptualizing reduces an infinite number of objects, events, and symbols to a smaller and more easily manipulated number of categories. In solving a problem, for example, an individual need not test each object or idea. Knowing the relationships between categories, the thinker can spend less time in making decisions and reaching solutions.

Types of Thinking

Thinking may be divided into two general types: (1) autistic and (2) realistic.

Autistic Thinking

is mainly subjective, being almost completely controlled by the thinker's needs and wishes. It includes dreams and daydreams. Daydreams help to release tensions and sometimes provide a relaxed mental state in which the thinker can solve problems apparently by intuition. When it replaces realistic thinking to a great extent, however, daydreaming is a symptom of a personality disorder.

Dreams are in many respects similar to daydreams, but are even less limited by reality. In dreams, objects and events usually symbolize objects perceived and events and feelings experienced during waking hours.

Realistic Thinking

may be motivated by the thinker's needs and wishes, but it takes into account the requirements and limitations of reality. Reasoning, problem solving, creative thought, some kinds of recalling, and certain learning processes are examples of realistic thinking.

Reasoning is the conscious direction of thought processes in an orderly sequence to a logical conclusion. Deduction is reasoning from the general to the particular. For example: if all humans can think, and if Mr. Jones is human, then it is true that Mr. Jones can think. Induction is reasoning from the specific to the general. For example: a large number of humans are studied and it is found that they can think; it is therefore assumed that all humans can think. Evaluation is critical reasoning, or the judging of the correctness and effectiveness of an opinion or theory.

Problem solving usually makes use of deduction, induction, and evaluation. In addition, other types of thinking are involved, such as recalling past experiences or symbols. The steps in problem solving include awareness of the problem; working out possible solutions through reasoning; and checking, or testing, the chosen solution or solutions.

Insight is often a part of problem solving. It is an apparently sudden understanding of important relationships between the various elements of the problem.

Creative thinking is originality. The creative thinker depends upon reasoning, especially induction and insight, but also makes great use of imagination. Creativity is found in artistic and scientific endeavor, resulting in works of art and literature, inventions, and discoveries. It can also play a part in such everyday activities as gardening and cooking.