Eskimo Peoples: History, Origins, and Culture

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Introduction to Eskimo

Eskimo, the name given to a group of peoples living in Alaska, northern Canada, Greenland, and the Chukchi Peninsula of northeastern Siberia. The name was long thought to have come from an Algonquian Indian word meaning eaters of raw meat. However, it is now believed to have originated with the Montagnais Indians, a northern Canadian tribe, and may mean snowshoe-netter.

Eskimo clothing was made from animal skins.

At one time, the name was applied only to the people living on the Arctic coast of North America, but eventually all similar peoples came to be called Eskimos. The name is not used by Eskimos themselves. Most North American Eskimos call themselves Inuit (meaning people in their language). This term is used as their official designation by the Canadian government. The Eskimos who live in Siberia and St. Lawrence Island in the Bering Sea call themselves Yuit (also meaning people). Although the name Eskimo is commonly used in Alaska, the name Inupiat is given to those who live in the north and northwest and Yupik to those in the southwest. Eskimos in Greenland call themselves both Inuit and Kalaallit.

Who the Eskimos Are

Eskimos possess a unique culture in a cold, harsh environment. They belong to the Mongoloid racial group. Eskimo language, part of the Eskimo-Aleut language family, consists of two branchesYupik and Inuit. Yupik is spoken in Siberia and southwestern Alaska, Inuit in northern Alaska, Canada, and Greenland. The Inuit language has several dialects and is called Inupiaq in Alaska, Inuktitut in Canada, and Kalaallisut in Greenland. In addition to their own language many Eskimos read, write, and speak English (in North America), Danish (in Greenland), and Russian (in Siberia).

Archeologists believe that the ancestors of the Eskimos reached North America by coming across the Bering Strait from Asia. Some believe they arrived as early as 6000 B.C., while others believe the migration occurred as late as 3000 B.C. Many fishing tools of a distinctive type that date from about 2500 B.C. to 1200 B.C. have been found in the Arctic regions of North America; most archeologists believe they were made by ancestors of the Eskimos. The earliest artifacts known to be of Eskimo origin were made after 1200 B.C.

In the 18th century, when Europeans first made extensive contact with the Eskimos, there were approximately 60,000 Eskimos in North America. Contact with the Europeans exposed Eskimos to new diseases, and epidemics of smallpox, influenza, and measles killed thousands. With the establishment of medical facilities in the 20th century, however, the death rate declined. By the beginning of the 21st century, there were about 132,000 Eskimos, with about 46,000 in the United States, 44,000 in Greenland, 41,000 in Canada, and 1,000 in Siberia.

Contact with other cultures has greatly changed the way of life of many Eskimos. They have moved from small, isolated hunting and fishing settlements to larger villages and towns, ranging in size from several hundred to a few thousand persons. They have maintained many traditional practices and beliefs while adopting a more modern way of life. In sharp contrast to the traditional way of life of Eskimos, they wear store-bought clothing and drive all-terrain vehicles and snowmobiles. Some operate motorboats. Televisions, computers, and microwave ovens are owned by many Eskimos.

Eskimos work in all sectors of the economy. Some are salespersons, miners, and construction workers, while others are technicians, government officials, and teachers. Many artists have formed cooperatives to sell their carvings, prints, and handicrafts. Tourism is another important source of income. Most communities have tour companies that offer land and sea expeditions.

Educational and medical facilities have been provided by government agencies. Modern life has brought problems as well as benefits. Beginning in the 1970's Eskimos formed regional and national organizations to represent their social, economic, and political interests.

The Inuit Tapirisat of Canada (ITC), founded in 1971, lobbied for land claims agreements and promoted the increased use of the Inuktitut language in schools, government, and broadcasting. ITC activities led to the creation of the Inuit territory of Nunavut in 1999.

In 1977 the Inuit Circumpolar Conference was founded in Barrow, Alaska, to represent the interests of Eskimos and Inuit in Russia, Alaska, Canada, and Greenland. The international organization meets every three years to discuss common problems, such as economic development, protection of the Arctic environment, and preservation of traditional culture.

Traditional Way of Life

For those Eskimos far removed from population centers, life in the harsh Arctic remains little changed from that lived by their ancestors hundreds of years ago. Traditionally Eskimos were hunters and gatherers. They lived in groups that moved from one area to another, according to the season. They depended largely on products obtained from the seal and caribou for food, clothing, heat, and light. There were no chiefs. Leadership was mainly advisorythat is, the person most skilled in a particular activity, such as hunting or fishing, was consulted when advice on that activity was needed.

Dwellings

In some parts of Greenland and in treeless regions of arctic Canada, such as Baffin Island, the Eskimos built snow houses for winter homes. These domed houses, built of blocks of fresh-cut snow, are commonly known as igloos. (The Eskimos themselves call any kind of shelter an igloo, not just snow houses.)

In other parts of Canada and Greenland, and in Alaska, some Eskimos built winter homes of turf and stone. Others packed thick layers of earth over frames of driftwood or whalebone. The homes usually had one room, with sleeping benches covered with caribou hides. In summer, almost all Eskimos lived in tents made of seal or caribou skins sewn together with sinews.

Food

The traditional Eskimo diet varied with the seasons. Seals, whales, and other sea mammals were hunted in the winter months. The meat was eaten cooked, raw, or dried. In summer and fall the major food sources were caribou, small game, fish, and berries.

A traditional Eskimo delicacy was akutok (often called Eskimo ice cream), made from arctic berries, seal oil, and caribou meat. Strong hot tea and hard biscuits, made with flour bought from a trading post, were served in nearly every home.

Clothing

Eskimo clothing was made from animal skins. Traditionally, men, women, and children dressed much alike. They wore waterproof sealskin boots, hooded fur jackets called parkas, and fur trousers made of pelts from seal, caribou, fox, or polar bear. Waterproof jackets were made from seal gut. An Eskimo mother carried her baby in a pouch on her back under her parka.

Family Life

Married couples were the nucleus of an extended family. Parents, brothers, unmarried sisters, or other relatives often shared the same household. All members worked together to survive the Arctic winters. Men were responsible for providing food. Women made clothes and prepared food. During the winter months families entertained themselves by telling and acting out stories handed down from generation to generation. Often they danced to drum music.

Religion

During the 20th century most Eskimos converted to Christianity. In remote regions, some families retained the ancient Eskimo belief that certain men and women, called shamans, have the ability to call upon supernatural spirits for aid in curing illness, ensuring good hunting, and controlling the weather.

Transportation

For land travel many Eskimos used showshoes and dogsleds. The teams of roughcoated dogs, known as Huskies, pulled loads of 500 to 1,000 pounds (225 to 450 kg). The driver trotted alongside or sometimes briefly rode the runners.

Two kinds of boats were used. At sea among the ice floes, the hunter paddled a kayak, a decked-over small boat with a driftwood frame lashed together by rawhide and covered with sealskin. Larger skin boats, called umiaks, carried several people. They were used for whale hunts and for moving entire families from place to place.

Hunting and Trapping

Bows and arrows were used for hunting caribou and polar bears until the 19th century, when rifles and bullets became available in trading posts. Seal was hunted with a harpoon flung from a kayak or thrust into a seal's breathing hole in the ice. During the long winter, fox and other fur-bearing animals were hunted for food and clothing, and for sale at trading posts. Fish were caught through holes in the ice in winter and in rivers and streams in summer.

Arts and Crafts

The most widespread Eskimo art form was miniature sculpture of objects in daily life, such as animals, boats, and dogsleds. The material commonly used was whalebone and walrus tusk ivory. In some areas highly imaginative masks of skins were made, largely for religious or magic purposes such as pacifying evil spirits. Women decorated clothing with animal fur, appliques of seal skin, and carved ivory pins.