World War I 1918: The Final Year and Its Aftermath

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Introduction to World War I in 1918

At the beginning of 1918 the peoples of Europe were weary of war. Among the Central Powers, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey were near collapse. Among the Allies the Russians and Romanians were out of the war and the Italians had been saved from collapse only by emergency reserves of French and British troops after the disaster at Caporetto in 1917.

Germany, Great Britain, and France were still as determined as ever to win, but suffering was widespread in all three countries. In January, President Wilson proposed a peace plan known as the Fourteen Points. However, after such a huge investment in men and matriel, the European powers were unwilling to settle for anything less than total victory.

World War I soldiers faced many new battlefield threats.

By 1918, the German High Command realized that the submarine campaign had been a disastrous failure; Germany had lost the gamble that Britain would collapse before the United States could make its efforts felt.

An immediate and decisive victory in the west became imperative for Germany. Opposition to the war in Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey was growing. A victory would help bolster sagging German prestige in those countries. Also, Ludendorff realized that German resistance in the west would probably collapse if the current defensive strategy was continued, especially with the steadily increasing number of United States troops arriving in France. With the war on the Eastern Front ended, Germany had additional manpower with which to launch a major attack.

The Western Front, 1918

By the middle of March, 1918, the Germans had transferred 400,000 men from the Eastern to the Western Front and had brought up 80,000 more from Italy. For the first time since September, 1914, the Germans outnumbered the Allies on the Western Front. Ludendorff chose to strike the sector around Saint Quentin, from Arras to Noyon.

Second Battle of the Somme

The German attack was launched on March 21 with an intense bombardment of the British positions with high explosive and gas shells. The effect of the gas was intensified by a heavy fog, which trapped the gas close to the ground and caused great confusion among the defenders. The German forces made huge advances, pushing the British back to the west side of the Somme. This created a big gap in the Allied line. The Germans poured through, advancing in the open field for the first time since the beginning of trench warfare in 1914.

One reason for the German success was that the Allies lacked unity of command; no one commander had the authority to give orders to both French and British troops so they could work together effectively. Efforts toward a unified command had been made after the Italian defeat at Caporetto in 1917 when the Supreme War Council was formed. This group, however, was a committee of political, not military, leaders and proved ineffective. What was needed was a single supreme commander of all Allied forces in France. This was apparent during the Second Battle of the Somme, when French reserves desperately needed by the British were not forthcoming. On April 14 General Ferdinand Foch was named supreme commander.

When Foch took command the situation appeared desperate. Ludendorff hoped to cut the British and French off from each other by attacking at Amiens, the point where their lines met. The British XIX Corps, which had been driven back 20 miles (32 km) in five days, was in disarray. A brigade was hastily formed from various reserve and support units to bolster it. With the help of these forces, the British finally checked the German penetration.

Fighting died down on April 6. The Germans had won an important tactical victory, advancing 40 miles (64 km) in eight days and inflicting 200,000 casualties. However, they failed to deliver a knock-out blow and lost some of their best troops.

During this crisis General Pershing had offered his forces to Foch for use in any way he might see fit. However, Pershing continued to insist that United States troops must eventually be made into a separate fighting force rather than be used as replacements in British and French divisions.

On March 23 the Germans began a longrange bombardment of Paris using newly developed artillery pieces called "Paris guns," which had a range of about 75 miles (120 km). The bombardment was intended to break the morale of the French. In actuality, it stiffened French resolve to resist the Germans. The battery drew return fire from French railway artillery. The bombardment stopped on May 1, after some 200 rounds had been fired.

Battle of the Lys

Ludendorff launched a fresh attack on April 19 on the Lys River. The attack was originally conceived as a diversionary engagement while the Germans regrouped for another assault against the Allies at Amiens. However, initial successes led Ludendorff to conclude that there was an opportunity to break through to the Channel ports. He threw in his reserves without restraint. The British, with some French reserves, put up fierce resistance. Ludendorff called off the attack on April 29, deciding that further efforts in this area would be too costly.

Third Battle of the Aisne

Ludendorff knew that with every passing day, more American troops were arriving in France. Though the spring rains made the terrain difficult, Ludendorff could not wait until summer. He decided to attack the Allies at the Aisne River, south of Laon. The attack began on May 27 and Soissons fell two days later. This broke a hole in the Allied lines. The Germans rushed through, occupying a salient 30 miles (48 km) deep and 35 miles (56 km) wide at the base.

The narrowness of this salient left it susceptible to the danger that simultaneous attacks at each end might succeed at cutting the main assault force from its support. As a result, Ludendorff began the Friedensturm, or peace offensive, an attack intended to widen the salient. Ludendorff hoped to break through the Allied line and advance to the Marne. From there, the Germans could march on Paris.

Efforts to take Reims at the close of May were unsuccessful. Ludendorff then prepared a major blow intended to eliminate the Allied salient from Chteau-Thierry to Montdidier. On June 9 he threw 15 divisions against the French in this sector, but Foch was prepared and offered steady resistance.

There had been some question about the quality of the hastily trained United States troops. During this period all doubts on this point were removed. The U.S. First Division entered the trenches in front of Cantigny on May 28. Here under Major General Robert L. Bullard they charged the enemy line and took the town.

When the German drive began sweeping down to the Marne, two other United States divisionsthe Second and Thirdwere thrown against this tide, meeting it at Chteau-Thierry. The German advance was checked and on June 6 a brigade of U.S. Marines of the Second Division began a series of attacks on Belleau Wood. After terrible losses, the Marines took the position on June 26.

Second Battle of the Marne

The fourth and final German lunge for victory began July 15. The Germans crossed the Marne from Dormans to a point west of Jaulgonne. They made some advances against the Allied positions, but again failed to break through. This marked the end of Germany's offensives. Supplies and reserves were scarce and morale was low. Ludendorff realized this and pulled his troops back into a defensive position.

Foch lost no time in taking the initiative. There were now more than a million United States troops in France, and more were arriving at the rate of almost 300,000 a month. The Allies had regained the advantage of superior numbers. On July 18, with the support of a large number of tanks, French and American troops under General Charles Mangin delivered a sudden attack on the exposed German flank between the Aisne and Chteau-Thierry. They took 20,000 prisoners and forced the Germans to retreat across the Marne.

Foch brought continual pressure against the Germans. French, British, American, and Italian troops attacked on both sides of the Marne salient. They cut off the German troops in the salient from their support, ending the danger of a German attack on Paris.

Foch then planned two attacks, one by the British to clear Amiens and one by the Americans to clear the St. Mihiel salient. Ludendorff began a withdrawal to the Hindenburg Line.

Battle of Amiens

General Haig was in command of the attack on a 30-mile (48-km) sector from Amiens to Montdidier. His forces were composed of the British Fourth Army and the French First Army. The Fourth Army was largely made up of Canadians and Australians. Some 400 tanks took part in the engagement. Expecting an attack elsewhere, the Germans were completely surprised when the Allies moved forward on the morning of August 8. On the first day, they advanced from four to seven miles (6 to 11 km), capturing 16,000 troops. Many of them simply threw down their weapons and surrendered. This event was so devastating to German morale that Ludendorff referred to August 8 as "the black day" for the German armies.

General Georges Humbert's Third French Army struck near Montdidier August 9. The Germans were again surprised. In a day and a half the French advanced eight miles (13 km), cut the road to Roye, and took Montdidier.

During the next five days the Allies continued to drive the Germans back. By August 15 the British were only two miles (3 km) from Chaulnes and the French four miles (6 km) from Roye. In a week the Germans had lost 30,000 prisoners, and probably as many more were killed and wounded. Also, desertions rose enormously.

German difficulties were increased by a brilliant French attack on the line from Noyon to Soissons on August 20. Mangin advanced to the western end of the Chemin-des-Dames, taking large numbers of prisoners. The British pushed onward, also, attacking on the old Somme front. They struck at the Hindenburg Line and captured the Drocourt-Queant railway line. The German armies were beginning to show signs of exhaustion.

St. Mihiel Attack

Meanwhile, the role of the American Expeditionary Force was growing. On August 10, United States units were grouped together to form the United States First Army. In the beginning of September, it went into the line east of Verdun, covering about 50 miles (80 km) of the front, including the St. Mihiel salient.

The area around St. Mihiel was a well-defended bulge in the German line that prevented an Allied advance on Sedan. Pershing massed his troops around the salient. German commanders sensed the impending attack and began a slow withdrawal. During this withdrawal, on September 12, the American troops attacked, supported by British and French artillery. The retreating Germans made little effort to defend the salient. Within one day, Pershing's troops captured the salient, 15,000 prisoners, and the Paris-Avricourt double-track railway. The battle was the first victory by the United States First Army.

The Final Western Offensive

The unexpected success of the inexperienced American troops and the sudden collapse of the German defenses in the summer counteroffensive led the Allied command to believe they could achieve victory in 1918. Foch planned a giant pincer attack, aimed at capturing the railway lines behind the German positions. If his plan succeeded, it would cut the enemy supply lines and also prevent German troops from retreating to the German frontier, where they could regroup and hold out through the winter. The Allies enjoyed superiority in men and material. However, the attack had to begin immediately if it was going to succeed before winter.

The Western Pincer

General Haig commanded this assault by French and British forces. He opened the attack on August 27. The terrain was very difficult, but progress was steady. The Germans concentrated on fighting small, delaying actions as they retreated. In a methodical fashion, Allied infantry, supported by artillery and aircraft, forced its way through the enemy lines.

A major victory was won on September 29, when the Hindenburg Line was broken south of Cambrai. The Allied advance continued north, and Saint Quentin was taken on October 1. By October 15, the Allies were near the Belgian border, threatening to cut the German lines in two. German troops were forced to withdraw from their positions along the coast, and the Allies captured the Channel ports of Ostend and Zeebrugge. The German front near the Schelde River was broken through by the British on October 17, and the Germans were forced back behind the Sambre Canal.

The Eastern Pincer, or Meuse-Argonne Offensive

This was the largest engagement fought by United States troops in the war. Before it ended, 250,000 American soldiers were involved, divided into two armies. The First Army was commanded by Lieutenant General Hunter Ligget, the Second by Major General Robert Bullard. General Pershing was in overall command.

The offensive began September 26 on a line between Verdun and the Argonne Forest. Progress was good for the first few days, except in the Argonne region. Then began a month of stubborn fighting with slow but steady gains. Pershing flanked the Argonne Forest late in October. On November 2 United States troops overran a strong German line extending from Grand Pr to the Meuse River.

The Americans rushed forward and took Buzancy, the German supply center in the area. Stunned by this quick action, the Germans fell back in confusion. Pershing's forces followed closely, giving the enemy no opportunity to construct new defenses. On November 7 United States troops arrived at the heights overlooking Sedan.

With their supply lines cut, it became impossible for the Germans to hold their positions. The entire Western Front was on the verge of collapse. German leaders, who felt defeat was inevitable after Ludendorff's failed Friedensturm but hoped to maneuver themselves into a better bargaining position, now asked for an immediate armistice.

When the Armistice was signed November 11, the 392 miles (631 km) of battle front from the English Channel to Switzerland were held as follows: French forces (including Italian and Portuguese units), 214 miles (344 km); United States, 83 miles (134 km); British, 70 miles (113 km); and Belgian, 25 miles (40 km).

Other Fronts, 1918

The Italian Front

The Austrians attempted an offensive against the Piave line in June, but their successes were minor. At the end of the month an Italian counteroffensive regained all lost positions. The Austrians lost 100,000 men and were completely demoralized.

On October 24 the Allies attacked the Austrians on the Adriatic plain and advanced towards Vittorio Veneto, splitting the Austrian line in two. The Austrians were overwhelmed. On November 1 the Grappa front collapsed and by November 2 the British had reached the Austrian frontier.

Austria signed an armistice on November 3, leaving Germany without allies.

The Balkan Front

An Allied offensive began on the Salonica front on September 14. The troops, commanded by General Franchet d'Esperey, were mostly Greeks, but also included Serbian, French, and Italian forces. In three days the Allies advanced 20 miles (32 km) and on September 24 Prilep was taken and the whole Bulgarian defense broke down. Remnants of three Bulgarian armies fled back to their own country, and the 11th German Army (composed largely of Bulgars) retreated to Albania, where it surrendered.

Bulgaria was the first of the Central Powers to ask for an armistice. It went into effect on September 30.

The Turkish Front

In September an advance began simultaneously in Palestine and Mesopotamia. The Allied troops, mostly from India, were aided by Arabs. Turkish resistance was crushed. General Townshend, the defender of Kut-el-Amara, was released by his captors and sent to British authorities to arrange for an armistice. The armistice went into effect on October 31.

Naval Operations, 1918

Allied naval forces in 1918 were chiefly concerned with stopping the German submarine campaign. Late in 1917 the British laid a mine barrage in the Strait of Dover that completely closed it in 1918 and forced the Germans to abandon their submarine bases on the Belgian coast. In the North Sea the Allies laid the largest mine field in history230 miles (370 km) long and up to 25 miles (40 km) wide.

The British attempted to block the German-held harbor of Ostend and the Bruges canal entry at Zeebrugge by scuttling obsolete naval vessels. The operation was partially successful; the canal entry at Zeebrugge was blocked, but the harbor of Ostend remained clear.

The British and United States navies continued to sink German submarines at sea. A shortage of trained German officers developed and the sailors began to protest against submarine service. U-boat attacks became more timid.

In October the German High Seas Fleet was ordered to break out from the safety of port and attack the British Grand Fleet. German sailors, who felt defeat was imminent, mutinied and seized Kiel. The mutiny sparked a revolution by German socialists in several northern German cities.