Introduction to Vietnam War
Vietnamese War, an undeclared war for the control of South Vietnam, 195775. The conflict began as a Communist guerrilla campaign supported by North Vietnam against the government of South Vietnam. By the mid-1960's, the fighting had expanded to full-scale warfare, with the United States becoming the major ally of South Vietnam. Several other anti-Communist nations, including South Korea, Australia. New Zealand, Thailand, and the Philippines, also aided South Vietnam.
The Vietnamese War saw major battles throughout the country.The United States' participation was approved by four PresidentsEisenhower. Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon. Each in turn acknowledged the necessity of supporting the South Vietnamese. The policy of the United States was initially expressed by Eisenhower in 1954. According to his "domino theory," if South Vietnam were toppled by the Communists, neighboring Asian nationsLaos, Cambodia, Thailand, Malaya, and Burmawould also fall, like a row of dominoes, to the Communists. The United States also feared at the time that if it withdrew from South Vietnam while that nation was still weak militarily, Communist nations would believe they could forcibly expand their sphere of influence unchecked.
The war ended with the North Vietnamese invasion and conquest of South Vietnam in 1975. A closely related development of that year was the fall of Laos and Cambodia to Communist movements in those countries.
Opposing Forces and Strategy of the War
The number of combatants on both sides was originally small. As one side, however, raised the number of its forces or enlarged the scope of the fighting, the other would respond in kind. This increasing of military pressure was called escalation. At the high point of foreign involvement in mid-1969, United States troops numbered more than 540,000; South Korean troops, nearly 50,000; other Allied troops, a few thousand. By early 1973 all Allied troops had been withdrawn.
South Vietnam's regular army, the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN), numbered more than 400,000 troops. The ARVN was supplemented by 500,000 troops of the nation's two militia forcesfull-time Regional Forces and part-time Popular Forces. Marine, navy, and air force personnel numbered nearly 100,000.
The combined strength of the CommunistsVietcong guerrillas and North Vietnamese Army (NVA) regularswas estimated to number from 300,000 to 400,000 troops. The Vietcong consisted of full-time guerrillas organized into main force units, part-time guerrillas organized into local units, and part-time, unorganized fighters based in the villages. Many NVA troops were used to fulfill manpower requirements in the Vietcong main force units. Regular divisions of the NVA were also used, especially in the later phases of the war.
Although Allied forces vastly outnumbered Communist forces, the strategic situation of the war generally favored the Communists. Nearly all of the enemy in the south were used in combat, but the Allies had only half of their troops in combat. The remainder of the troops were used in such support activities as supply, construction, signal, and administration. The Communists controlled much of the countryside. The Allied forces held the cities.
During most of the war the fighting was not conducted in the conventional way, with armies facing each other along military fronts. Pitched battles between large opposing forces were infrequent. The Vietcong generally used guerrilla tacticssmall, harassing actions by nonuniformed fighters, who often lived in nearby villages. They could ambush troops sent against them, then melt away in the face of an attack. Terrorism, sabotage, and assassination were also Vietcong weapons.
The Allies had to make full use of their superiority in numbers, weapons, and air and sea power against the guerrillas. Their strategy was to use combat troops to root out the guerrillas through small search-and-destroy operations and wherever possible to wipe out the enemy's main force units in large-scale offensives called sweeps .
Air attacks and artillery bombardments were used to support combat troops and to destroy Communist bases and sources of supply. Allied aircraft also sprayed dioxin, a defoliant popularly known as Agent Orange, over areas of Vietnam to remove leaves and other vegetation hiding enemy bases and troop movements. ( )
In the last years of the war, following the withdrawal of Allied troops, the bulk of the fighting involved armies deployed along conventional fronts. The Vietcong guerrilla force had largely ceased being a factor.
Reaction to the War In the United States
In the United States, a nationwide debate ensued over participation in the war. The government's official position was that it was involved in Vietnam at the request of the government of South Vietnam and was helping to repel Communist aggression from the north. Its only avowed objective was to secure a settlement that would allow the people of Vietnam to decide their own form of government. To achieve this end, it was using only carefully controlled military measures so as not to take innocent lives or bring about active participation by China or the Soviet Union.
As United States involvement continued, however, Americans grew increasingly dissatisfied with their nation's war policy. Some, described as "hawks," argued that the United States should use maximum military force to gain a quick victory. Others, called "doves," argued that the conflict in Vietnam was essentially a civil war in which the United States had no right to interfere. Some of the doves demanded immediate American withdrawal, while others called for a gradual disengagement from the war.
Some critics of the war charged that American use of bombers and of artillery was too indiscriminate and that many innocent civilians had perished. The revelation that United States troops in 1968 had massacred the entire population of My Lai, an enemy-held village, caused much controversy over the way in which the war was being fought. Demonstrations were held in the United States, especially in 1969 and 1970, to protest the war.
Guerrilla Phase (195764)
For developments leading up to the 1954 Geneva Conference on Indochina and the partition of Vietnam into North Vietnam and South Vietnam, .
North Vietnam, with its capital at Hanoi, was governed by the Vietnamese Communist party under the leadership, until 1969, of President Ho Chi Minh. South Vietnam, with Saigon (now Ho Chi Minh City) as capital, became a republic in 1955; its first president was Ngo Dinh Diem.
After partition, there were mass movements of population. Almost 1,000,000 refugees from Communism moved to the south. About 100,000 Vietminh (Communist-led revolutionaries who had been fighting for Vietnamese independence) moved to North Vietnam.
The nationwide elections to reunify the two Vietnams that were scheduled for 1956 were not held. South Vietnam and the United States, which under President Eisenhower had begun giving economic and military assistance to the South Vietnamese, believed that such elections would lead to a Communist takeover of all Vietnam.
By 1957 it appeared that the Diem regime might be able to put South Vietnam on a firm enough footing to keep it from being taken over by the Communists. Antigovernment forces therefore took action to gain control of the rural areas of South Vietnam as a first step in conquering the south. Small teams began terrorist attacks on villages, followed by ambushes of government troops sent to restore order.
The VietcongIn 1960, the Communists set up a political organization called the National Liberation Front (NLF) to direct the insurrection. Its fighters became known as Vietcong (Vietnamese Communists). Peasants were recruited for the Vietcong by persuasion and by coercion. Recruitment in South Vietnam was rapid.
The Vietcong became a crack guerrilla force. A large share of their arms and equipment was captured from government soldiers. As the Vietcong grew more numerous, they were able to exact tribute payments and allotments of men from the villages they controlled.
Counter-guerrilla EffortsSouth Vietnamese government forces, suffering from low morale and a high desertion rate, badly needed support. In 1961 President Kennedy placed American advisers at the battalion level of the ARVN forces and allowed them to accompany ARVN units on operations. A U.S. Air Force unit was sent to train South Vietnamese pilots. United States pilots began transporting Vietnamese soldiers to combat locations by helicopter and other types of aircraft. At the same time, small U.S. Special Forces teams were sent to organize the mountain tribes so that they could resist the Vietcong. By 1962, 4,000 United States military advisers were in South Vietnam.
The Allied forces, however, remained far too few to defeat the guerrillas. The Vietcong were receiving men and supplies from North Vietnam via the Ho Chi Minh Trail, a jungle trail that crossed through neighboring Laos.
Among the Vietcong enticements to win over the peasants of South Vietnam were promises of their own land, tax relief, and expulsion of the American "imperialists." The South Vietnamese government also recognized the importance of peasant allegiance. Programs were set up to give the peasants their own land and to protect them from Vietcong raids. However, many of the civil servants who administered the programs were corrupt or indifferent, and the effective administrators were targets for assassination by the Vietcong.
Diem OverthrownAs the Vietcong gained strength, the government became increasingly repressive. In 1963 Diem was overthrown in a military coup. Political turmoil followed and the people's confidence in the government continued to slip. The war effort of the government proved ineffective and the countryside increasingly fell to the Vietcong.
The year 1964 proved even more discouraging for the South Vietnamese forces. More than 100,000 of their soldiers deserted during the year, while Vietcong recruitment was stepped up in the south and infiltration from the north increased. The government was in a seriously weakened condition, causing the United States to increase its assistance.
Gulf of Tonkin IncidentIn August, 1964, two U.S. Navy destroyers reported being attacked by North Vietnamese PT boats in international waters in the Gulf of Tonkin off North Vietnam. United States forces retaliated by bombing North Vietnamese coastal bases. Both houses of Congress then passed a resolutionthe Gulf of Tonkin Resolutionauthorizing the President to use "all necessary action to protect our armed forces and to assist nations covered by the SEATO treaty." (This treaty included South Vietnam.) Almost 20,000 United States troops were in Vietnam by the end of the year.
Gradual Escalation (196567)
The war took on a new dimension when on February 7, 1965, United States airplanes began bombing North Vietnamese military targets in retaliation for a terrorist guerrilla raid against the American Camp Holloway air base at Pleiku. On February 18, airplanes manned solely by United States personnel began making direct attacks on the Vietcong in South Vietnam. Previously, South Vietnamese had participated in such missions.
United States Assumes Major RoleThe war entered another phase in March, 1965, when units of Marines became the first United States combat troops in South Vietnam. They participated in search-and-destroy expeditions against the Vietcong near Da Nang. In April the first North Vietnamese regular units entered South Vietnam.
United States involvement in the war vastly increased in July, 1965, when President Johnson raised American strength in Vietnam to 125,000 men. While many of these soldiers had a defensive role in guarding the extensive United States military installations, others joined ARVN forces in seeking out the Vietcong.
Fierce battles took place in late 1965, particularly along the coast near United States bases at Chu Lai and Da Nang and in the central highlands at An Khe and in the Ia Drang Valley. By the end of 1965, there were 181,000 American troops in South Vietnam. Troops were also sent by South Korea, Australia, and New Zealand.
Communist Forces IncreaseThe Communists responded to the large increase in Allied strength by nearly doubling their forces to a total of 230,000 men, including part-time guerrillas and about 40,000 NVA regulars. In addition, Communist China and the Soviet Union supplied equipment for antiaircraft installations in North Vietnam, making American bombing raids and observation flights much more hazardous.
United States planes started bombing targets deep in North Vietnam in February, 1966, but the infiltration of men and supplies from North Vietnam continued. The buildup of American forces in South Vietnam was accelerated. By the end of 1966, United States troops there totaled about 389,000. A few thousand troops were also sent by Thailand and the Philippines.
Throughout 1967 guerrilla activity continued to increase, but there was also a rise in the number of pitched battles fought between American troops and North Vietnamese regulars. Fighting raged throughout the south, particularly in the area surrounding Saigon, in the northern provinces, and in the Mekong Delta region. In the central highlands around Dak To a bloody battle took place between American and NVA troops. Bombing of the north was stepped up. Casualties were heavy on both sides. Hundreds of thousands of South Vietnamese were made refugees by the fighting.
At the end of 1967, Allied forces totaled approximately 1,228,000 (United States, 470,000; South Vietnam, 700,000; other allies, 58,000). Enemy forces were estimated at 333,000. Despite the massive commitment of American men and money, the military situation appeared stalemated. Neither side seemed able to resolve the conflict by winning a clear-cut military victory. Although the Allies had superiority on the battlefield, the enemy was able to retain the allegiance of many peasants and had the advantage of sanctuaries in Cambodia.
Tet OffensiveDuring the Tet (New Year) holidays in January, 1968, the Communists launched surprise attacks on more than 30 cities. After weeks of intense fighting during which they suffered substantial losses, they were driven out of all the cities. A tragic result was the destruction of large areas of the historic city of Hue and of the Cholon section of Saigon. The onslaught weakened the newly elected South Vietnamese government, set back efforts at pacification (a program directed by the Americans to protect rural villages from Communist penetration), and brought demands in the United States for peace.
Final Phase (196875)
In previous years both sides had made numerous attempts without success to find a basis on which to negotiate a peace settlement. Following the Tet offensive, both sides reassessed their positions. As a result the United States scaled down its bombing of North Vietnam beginning in April, 1968. North Vietnam, in return, agreed to meet with the United States in Paris in May, to begin discussing peace possibilities. In November all bombing of North Vietnam was halted. In early 1969 representatives of South Vietnam's government and of the National Liberation Front joined the peace talks.
Meanwhile, heavy fighting continued throughout South Vietnam during the spring of 1968, especially around the Marine base of Khe Sanh. A lull in the fighting followed until the 1969 Tet holidays, when the Communists launched another offensive.
In July President Nixon announced that the United States would begin a phased withdrawal of its troops to gradually transfer the entire burden of the war to the South Vietnamese. This policy became known as "vietnamization."
Extended War In IndochinaDuring 1970, despite continued withdrawals of American troops and a lessening of hostilities, the war appeared to take on larger dimensions. In Laos United States bombers tried to blunt a Pathet Lao (Communist) offensive supported by NVA regulars. In Cambodia the neutralist Norodom Sihanouk was deposed by pro-Western government officials, who began a campaign to eliminate the Vietcong from their Cambodian sanctuaries. Their troops, however, were no match for the seasoned Vietcong, who soon penetrated deep into the country. Coming to Cambodia's aid, American and South Vietnamese troops crossed the border to attack the enemy sanctuaries. This action caused massive protest demonstrations on American college campuses.
In 1971, South Vietnamese forces invaded Laos to try to cut off North Vietnamese infiltration into the south along the Ho Chi Minh Trail. The enemy forced them to retreat within a few weeks.
In March, 1972, the North Vietnamese launched a large-scale offensive into the south, and occupied much territory. A total rout of ARVN forces was prevented only by heavy American bombing attacks on NVA positions. Also, President Nixon ordered the resumption of massive bombing of the north and the mining and blockade of North Vietnam's harbors to cut off foreign aid. The fighting was soon stalemated.
North Vietnamese VictoryBy 1972 the United States and South Korea had ended their ground combat role in South Vietnam. In 1973 a peace agreement was signed, under which the United States withdrew from the conflict and American prisoners of war held by the North Vietnamese were released. During the war, some 2,200,000 Americans had served in Vietnam. Of that number, more than 58,000 died there.
Also in 1973 a truce was called between the South Vietnamese forces and the Communist forces. Both sides, however, resumed hostilities soon thereafter. In March, 1975, the NVA and Vietcong launched attacks on ARVN positions. Although no different in scale from earlier offensives, the attacks resulted in a massive collapse of ARVN armies in the northern provinces because of the failure of leadership by the South Vietnamese general staff and the lack of United States air support. Within weeks the country was overrun by enemy armies, and in April the government in Saigon capitulated. In the last days of the war, the United States helped more than 100,000 Vietnamese flee the country.
The Communists soon placed the country under military rule. Formal unification occurred in 1976.
In a related development of 1975, Cambodian and Laotian regimes backed by the United States fell as a result of insurgencies supported by North Vietnam All the former colonies of French Indochina came under Communist rule.