United Kingdom History: From Union to Modern Era

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Introduction to History of United Kingdom

The united kingdom of Great Britain was created in 1707 by the union of England and Scotland. (The title United Kingdom became the official name nearly one hundred years later.) and Scotland.

The union of England and Scotland occurred during Queen Anne's reign (1702–14). Britain and its allies in the Grand Alliance were engaged in a conflict with France called the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–14). The part of the war fought in North America is known as Queen Anne's War. The British commander in chief on the European continent, the Duke of Marlborough, won major military victories that led to the Peace of Utrecht. Britain gained Gibraltar and areas in Canada. The war established Great Britain as the greatest sea power in the world.

History of Great Britain 1701-1837

House of Hanover

In 1714 the Stuart dynasty came to an end with the death of Queen Anne. She was succeeded by the Elector of Hanover, a German prince descended from James I of England; he came to the throne as George I. Not much interested in Britain, George I did not even bother to learn English. He permitted his cabinet ministers to govern—especially Sir Robert Walpole, who became in effect Britain's first prime minister (although the title was not yet in use). Stuart supporters, called Jacobites, attempted unsuccessfully to unseat George I in favor of the son of James II, James Francis Edward Stuart, known later as the “Old Pretender.”

In 1720 Britain was shaken by a financial crisis, known as the South Sea Bubble, brought on by the collapse of a speculative boom in Spanish-American trade. The emergency brought Walpole to power. His wise leadership kept him there for 20 years and established the Whigs as the dominant political party for the next half century.

Reign of George II

George I was succeeded in 1727 by his son, George II. Walpole led the government, and Britain was prosperous and virtually at peace. The occasional fighting with Spain was ended by treaty in 1729. British commercial interest turned again toward South America, bringing on the War of Jenkins' Ear (1739–43) against Spain. Walpole was opposed to the war and resigned in 1742.

In 1743 Britain entered the War of the Austrian Succession as an ally of Austria against France. Much of the fighting between the French and British took place in North America, where the war became known as King George's War. The conflict in Europe and America ended in 1748 with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. In India, however, fighting between Britain and France over colonial expansion continued for another 15 years.

In 1745 there was a second Jacobite uprising. Scottish Catholic support of Charles Edward Stuart (the “Young Pretender,” or “Bonnie Prince Charlie”) led to the Battle of Culloden in 1746, in which the Jacobites were routed. There were no further efforts to restore the Stuarts to the British throne.

In 1754 the French and Indian War in America renewed Franco-British conflict. Two years later this conflict became part of the Seven Years' War (1756–63), in which France supported Austria, and England allied itself with Prussia. The Treaty of Paris in 1763 ended the war. Britain gained all of French Canada, the French and Spanish holdings east of the Mississippi River, and recognition of its rights to colonial holdings in India. Much of Britain's success in the war was due to the energetic direction of William Pitt (the “Elder Pitt”), who led the government in this critical period.

Early Reign of George III

George III, grandson of George II, came to the throne in 1760. His reign, which lasted until 1820, was one of the most significant in British history. Industrialization, barely begun, now gathered momentum. Also, during this period Britain, which after the Seven Years' War had become dominant on the North American continent, lost all her American colonies south of Canada.

The Industrial Revolution began in Britain about 1750, when machines replaced hand labor in the cotton textile industry. It led to dramatic economic growth in the 19th century.

The American Revolutionary War took place during the ministry of Frederick, Lord North (1770–82). The loss of the 13 colonies was somewhat offset by territorial and economic gains elsewhere. British rule in India had been extended by Robert Clive and Warren Hastings. In 1771 Captain James Cook discovered Australia and New Zealand for Great Britain.

British East India Company The British East India Company controlled much of the Indian subcontinent by the end of the 18th century. The company had direct control over most of the northern part of the subcontinent and most of the coastal areas along the Bay of Bengal. The Indian states of Hyderabad, Mysore, Oudh, and Travancore were not directly held by the company but were allied states. Only the Maratha Confederacy in central India was not allied to the company.The Younger Pitt

With the fall of Lord North's government, there was a struggle for power between William Pitt the Younger and Charles James Fox. It was won by Pitt in 1783. He revived the Tory party and undertook a variety of reforms in government and finance.

When the French Revolution broke out in 1789, British sympathies were at first divided. However, in 1793 the country was drawn into a coalition of European nations at war against France. Gradually, France's enemies were forced out of the war until, in 1797, only Britain and Portugal remained.

Napoleon Bonaparte rose to power in France in 1799, and his colonial ambitions were a challenge to Britain. The victories of Admiral Horatio Nelson led to a temporary peace treaty, the Peace of Amiens, in 1802.

In the meantime the Irish, encouraged by the French, rose against British rule. They were brutally put down. By bribery and promises, Ireland was persuaded to accept an Act of Union. In 1801 the two nations became the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. A dispute over religious toleration in Ireland developed between Pitt and George III, whose stubbornness was now aggravated by mental imbalance brought on by illness. Pitt resigned.

Napoleonic Wars

Napoleon, disregarding the Peace of Amiens, continued his aggressions. In 1803 Britain went to war again. Pitt was recalled to office and formed a new coalition to oppose France. In spite of the British sea victory at Trafalgar (in which Admiral Nelson was killed) in 1805, Napoleon was master of most of Europe by 1806. In the same year, Pitt died.

The next phase of the war was largely economic. Napoleon closed Europe to British trade. In turn, Europe was blockaded by the British navy. In the Peninsular War (1808–13), Spain, Portugal, and Britain opposed Napoleon on the Iberian Peninsula. Sir Arthur Wellesley (later Duke of Wellington), the British commander there, rose to prominence in this campaign.

British interference with United States merchant shipping led to the War of 1812. The war ended in a compromise in 1815.

In 1813 the European nations that had been conquered by Napoleon rose against France. The Napoleonic Wars ended finally with Wellington's victory over Napoleon at Waterloo in 1815. The peace terms worked out at the Congress of Vienna reflected British determination to establish a lasting peace. Under the guidance of Wellington and Lord Castlereagh, the congress created a balance of power that kept Europe at peace for 40 years.

George IV and William IV

George III was incapacitated after 1809. His son acted as regent and succeeded him in 1820 as George IV. The postwar period had brought desperate financial problems. The Corn Laws, passed by Parliament in 1815 to support the price of grain, made bread a luxury. There was a demand for the reform of electoral laws. The Tory government repressed all expressions of discontent. Ireland, however, was near rebellion because of the continued denial of religious and political rights to Catholics.

Wellington, a Tory, became prime minister in 1828. Laws discriminating against Nonconformists (non-Anglican Protestants) were repealed the same year. The Catholic Emancipation Bill, permitting Roman Catholics to hold all but the highest political offices, was passed in 1829. George IV died in 1830 and was succeeded by his brother, William IV. In the elections, the Tories were defeated.

Under a liberal Whig government the Reform Bill of 1832 was passed. It gave increased parliamentary representation to the cities. Other new laws made local governments more democratic.

Social Developments, 1707–1837

The 18th century was a period of developing social conscience. The welfare and freedom of the individual became a matter of concern in Britain as in other countries. Sometimes, however, reform was a long and tedious process.

Slavery and the Slave Trade

Britain had engaged early in the transportation of African slaves to the Americas. By the 18th century, however, sentiment among the British people against slavery had become strong. A law halting the British slave trade was enacted in 1807, and slavery was abolished in all British colonies in 1833.

Penal Reform

England had brutally harsh penal laws, and efforts began in the early 19th century to revise and modify them. In 1800 more than 200 kinds of offenses could be punished by death. Gradually these were reduced to a handful. Imprisonment for debt was abolished. The game laws prohibiting hunting on estate lands were eased and finally repealed. Beginning in 1836 prisoners were permitted to consult with a lawyer.

Industrial Revolution

Great social changes came to Great Britain in the 18th and 19th centuries as a result of the Industrial Revolution. Improvements in textile machinery, introduction of the steam engine, and advances in transportation (such as construction of canals and paving of roads) caused tremendous industrial growth. The death rate was sharply cut by an increase in medical knowledge and sanitation measures. During the reign of George III (1760–1820), the population almost doubled. People flocked to work in the coal mines, the textile mills, and the ironworks. New towns grew up around the booming industries.

The living standard of the working people was distressingly low, however, and working conditions were deplorable. A demand for reform slowly developed. The Factory Act of 1833 limited the working hours of young persons and specified certain improvements in overall working conditions. In 1834 the Poor Law was revised to require factory owners to pay higher wages.

History, 1837–1914

William IV died in 1837 and was succeeded by his 18-year-old niece, Victoria. During her reign of more than 63 years the role of constitutional monarch became clearly defined. Although actual authority rested with Parliament, the queen influenced governmental action. Her intelligent concern for the nation won her subjects' respect and affection.

Early Reign of Victoria

Victoria's reign began in an era of prolonged European peace and, in Britain, of unprecedented industrial, commercial, and colonial growth. Railways, the new means of transportation, were rapidly extended. Steamships began crossing the ocean in 1838. The telegraph came into general use between 1837 and 1842.

Workers, however, suffered hardship from low wages and high food prices, and had little voice in government. Government regulations limited the activities of trade unions. In 1837–38 a workers' group drew up a “People's Charter” of rights and reforms. Chartism became a strong movement that threatened the government. Parliament, however, ignored Chartist petitions.

The Whigs and Tories gradually came to be known, respectively, as Liberals and Conservatives. In 1841 Sir Robert Peel was named prime minister. Although a Conservative, Peel had been active in reform movements. Under his ministry, customs duties were lowered and an income tax levied. Chartist agitation convinced him that the Corn Laws, which created the high food prices, could not be maintained. The Irish potato famine in 1845–46 made further delay impossible. The Corn Laws were repealed in 1846 over Conservative opposition. Peel, opposed by some members of his own party, resigned.

Under the Liberal leadership of Lord John Russell, a 10-hour-day work bill was passed in 1847, and a public health act in 1848. Repeal of the Navigation Laws in 1849 established free trade in British ports. New laws improved working conditions in factories and mines.

Foreign policy, which favored expansion, was largely directed by Lord Palmerston, who first became foreign secretary in 1830. Colonization in Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa was actively encouraged. Hong Kong was ceded to Britain by China in 1842.

In 1854 Britain entered the Crimean War against Russia. The British army made a poor showing at first, and bitter criticism caused the cabinet to resign. Lord Palmerston became prime minister. Military administration was improved, and the war ended in 1856 with Russian expansion checked for the time being.

In India, control by the British East India Company had increased steadily. In 1857 the Indian Mutiny broke out. The rebellion was put down with considerable bloodshed, and administration in India was taken over by the British government.

British India British India was set up in 1858. Great Britain took over East India Company lands and also had indirect control of the remaining states of Baluchistan, Hyderabad, Kashmir, Mysore, Rajputana, and Travancore.Disraeli and Gladstone

In 1866 the Conservatives came to power. The desire of the British people for political and social betterment, however, was too strong to be ignored. In 1867 the second Reform Act was passed, doubling the number of voters. Benjamin Disraeli was named prime minister in 1868, but a Liberal victory soon afterwards brought William Gladstone to office. Until Disraeli's death in 1881, the prime ministry alternated between him and Gladstone, as public favor swung between parties. Gladstone emphasized social reform; Disraeli, imperial expansion.

During Gladstone's first ministry, the Anglican Church in Ireland was made separate from the government (1869). The Elementary Education Act of 1870 initiated free, compulsory education. The army and the judicial system were reorganized. In 1872, the secret ballot was introduced.

In Disraeli's second ministry (1874–80) Britain purchased shares in the Suez Canal, which led to Britain's military occupation of Egypt. In 1876 Queen Victoria took the title of Empress of India, and Britain and its colonies became the British Empire. Cyprus was acquired in 1878.

In the second Gladstone ministry (1880–85) an act extending suffrage in municipal elections and the Reform Act of 1884, providing almost universal male suffrage, were passed. Working with the Irish statesman Charles Stewart Parnell, Gladstone made repeated unsuccessful attempts to give Ireland home rule. His Home Rule Act was defeated in 1886 and 1893.

The expansionist policies of Disraeli were continued under the Liberals. There were frequent small wars in colonial areas. Discovery of gold in the South African Republic in 1884 brought conflict between the Dutch settlers (Boers) and the British colonists. The resulting Boer War (1899–1902) made South Africa part of the British Empire. An uprising against foreign powers in China, the Boxer Rebellion (1900), resulted in establishment of the “open door” trade policy for China.

In 1901 Queen Victoria died, and her son Edward VII (1901–10) came to the throne. The Edwardian Era was a period of social elegance and of peace. It was also the period in which socialism became a major force in British politics.

Socialism and the Labor Movement

The trade union movement in Britain tended to support the principles of socialism. The Fabian Society, founded in 1884 by British intellectuals, thought socialism should be achieved by political means. In 1893 the Independent Labour party was formed by James Keir Hardie. With its support, the Labour Representation Committee was formed in 1900 and succeeded in uniting the unions and socialist groups, including the Fabian Society, into a political organization.

In 1906 the group became the Labour party and joined forces with Liberals and Irish Nationalists. The Liberals won control of Parliament. Legislation was enacted on workmen's compensation, old-age pensions, minimum wages, health insurance, and government employment agencies. The Parliament Act of 1911 stripped the House of Lords of most of its power. A bill permitting home rule for Ireland was passed in 1913, but before it could be put into effect World War I broke out.

History, 1914–39

World War. I

George V succeeded his father in 1910. The great European powers were aligned in two opposing groups—the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hunary, and Italy) and the Triple Entente (Great Britain, France, and Russia). When World War I started in August, 1914, Great Britain entered as an ally of Belgium, France, and Russia.

Although the Allies won the war, Europe's economy was shattered. Decline in British trade and in employment was severe. From 1916 to 1922 David Lloyd George, a Liberal, was prime minister. Under him suffrage was extended to women, southern Ireland became the Irish Free State, and Egypt gained independence.

Years of Stress

From 1923 to 1937 Stanley Baldwin, a Conservative, and Ramsay MacDonald, of the Labour party, alternated in the office of prime minister. The nation faced a series of crises. Trade did not improve, and there were crippling labor strikes. In 1931 the Commonwealth of Nations, which eventually replaced the empire, was formed. In the same year Britain went off the gold standard. George V died in 1936 and was succeeded by his son, Edward VIII, who abdicated within a year in favor of his brother, George VI.

In 1937 Neville Chamberlain, a Conservative, became prime minister, and through a policy of appeasement attempted to save his nation and Europe from the war for which Nazi Germany was preparing. His policy failed; Germany invaded Poland in 1939 and Britain declared war.

History, 1939–70

World War II

In the early stages of the war, it seemed possible that Britain might suffer defeat. In this period of crisis, Winston Churchill, a Conservative, became prime minister. His bold leadership and magnificent oratory made him the symbol of British courage. Soon the Soviet Union and the United States entered the conflict against Germany, Italy, and Japan. The war ended in August, 1945, with an Allied victory. In July wartime strains had brought the fall of the conservative Churchill government.

Postwar Era

Under Labourite Clement Attlee the major Fabian socialist principles were put into effect. The Bank of England and key industries were nationalized. The government increased old-age pensions, set up a payments program for families falling below specified income levels, and established a system of socialized medicine. To relieve the financial plight caused by war debts and a weakened economy, the government devalued the currency and adopted austerity measures. It also received aid from the United States through the European Recovery Program. The Conservatives, returned to power in 1951, retained the social reforms enacted by the Labour party. George VI died in 1952 and was succeeded by his daughter Elizabeth II.

Economically and militarily depleted by World War II, Britain found its position in the world greatly changed. Although it was a leader in founding the United Nations and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, it no longer ranked as a major power. The designation of “empire” had been dropped in 1947 when India was granted independence. One after another, British dependencies were becoming sovereign nations. Britain's weakened position was highlighted in 1956, when Egypt seized control of the Suez Canal. Britain and France sent in troops to retake the canal, but were forced by international pressure to withdraw.

In 1961 Britain, hoping to strengthen its economy, tried to join the European Community (known since 1993 as the European Union), but was blocked by France. The nation's economic condition steadily worsened, leading to an overturn of the Conservative government in 1964. The Labour party, however, was compelled to devalue the pound in 1967, and to decrease government spending on welfare programs and on military commitments. The voters returned the Conservatives to power in 1970.

History After 1970

After extended negotiations, the way cleared for Britain to join the European Community, and in 1972 Parliament approved entry. The economy remained stagnant, however, and then worsened as the oil-producing countries of the Middle East placed an embargo on the shipment of oil to western countries and, when the embargo was removed, raised prices. With the increased importance of coal, Britain's coal miners demanded pay raises and after an initial slowdown went on strike. At the beginning of 1974, the Conservative government established a three-day work week to conserve fuel. Inflation soared.

An election was called and the Labour party won a narrow victory. The miners' strike was settled, but the nation was left in desperate financial straits, and there was serious concern over the wisdom of Britain remaining in the European Community. One encouraging development, however, was the discovery in the early 1970's of rich oil deposits in the North Sea and natural gas reserves in the Irish Sea. In another general election, the Labour party was continued in power.

Meanwhile, the traditional antagonism between Protestants and Catholics in Northern Ireland had flared into violence, with many instances of terrorism. British troops were sent in to restore order, but failed; the British government was forced to take over direct rule of the country in 1972. Attempts to resolve the conflict were unsuccessful, and disorder continued.

Although Britain's economy improved slightly in the late 1970's; serious problems, including inflation and labor unrest, remained. Elections in 1979 brought the Conservatives to power, and party leader Margaret Thatcher became Britain's first woman prime minister. She introduced austerity measures that reduced inflation but aggravated already serious unemployment, which reached the highest levels since the Great Depression.

In April, 1982, Argentina seized the Falkland Islands, a British colony off the tip of South America. A British expeditionary force retook the islands in June.

The Conservatives called for Parliamentary elections in 1983 and won an overwhelming victory. In 1985 Britain and the Republic of Ireland signed a treaty that set up an Anglo-Irish commission through which the Republic would have a consultative role in the affairs of Northern Ireland.

Parliamentary elections in 1987 reaffirmed Conservative rule. In 1988 Thatcher became the longest-sitting prime minister since Lord Liverpool (1812–27). In 1990 Thatcher resigned as leader of the Conservatives following opposition on policy matters by some factions within her party. She was succeeded by John Major.

During 1990–91 Britain came into conflict with other members of the European Community by opposing further economic and political integration. The conflict lessened in December, 1991, when the British government, after being given the choice of “opting out” of certain provisions, approved a treaty that would further integrate the Community. The treaty was approved by the British parliament in 1993.

Meanwhile, during 1989–94 the provisional Irish Republican Army (provisional IRA) engaged in widespread terrorist bombings in Britain. Bombings subsided somewhat in mid-1994, and during 1994–96 the British government and leaders from the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland (including representatives from Sinn Fein, the political arm of the provisional IRA) conducted negotiations concerning the future of Northern Ireland. A deal was reached in 1998 granting increased autonomy to Northern Ireland and ending direct rule from London.

In 1996 a scientific report was issued in Britain that linked a fatal disease found in many of Britain's cattle (“mad cow disease”) to a fatal disease in humans. Britain developed a plan, implemented over several years, to slaughter diseased cattle and cattle most likely to be affected by the disease.

Parliamentary elections in May 1997 were won in a landslide by the Labour party, ending 18 years of Tory government. The new Labour majority in Parliament was the largest any party had held since 1935 and Tory representation was the lowest it had been since 1906. Labour party leader Tony Blair became Prime Minister.

A major campaign issue was Britain's participation in the European Monetary Union. Most Tories opposed joining but John Major was reluctant to rule it out until late in the campaign. Blair promised to hold a national referendum on joining. Blair also pledged in his campaign to grant Scotland and Wales greater autonomy. In 1997 Scottish and Welsh voters, in separate ballots, approved the creation of local legislatures: a powerful Parliament in Scotland and a National Assembly, with far fewer powers, in Wales.

On July 7, 2005, terrorists set off bombs in London subways and on a bus, killing 56 persons and injuring 700 others. In a second attack two weeks later, only the detonators exploded and there were no casualties.

In June 2007, Tony Blair resigned as prime minister and leader of the Labour Party. Gordon Brown succeeded Blair as prime minister and Labour Party leader.