Introduction to Alexander
Alexander, the name of a number of European rulers. Among the more important historically are the following.
Russia
Alexander I (Russian: Aleksandr Pavlovich) (1777-1825) was czar from 1801 to 1825. An absolute ruler, he used his autocratic power for what he believed to be the benefit of his subjects. However, he ruled in an age of revolutionary change, and his 18th-century view of the monarch's role soon was outdated. He was responsive to liberal ideas early in his reign, but his later advisers were conservative and the policies formed with their counsel stirred much opposition. Alexander's personality was complex and unstable. In his later years he became a religious fanatic.
Alexander was born in St. Petersburg, the eldest son of Czar Paul I. His education was supervised by his grandmother, Catherine the Great, who had a strong influence on him. Alexander assumed the throne after his father was assassinated in a palace coup (which Alexander had foreknowledge of but did nothing to stop). He then initiated social, administrative, and economic reforms—reorganizing the government's administration into ministries with defined responsibilities, fostering education and science, and freeing the serfs in the Baltic provinces.
Foreign affairs took much of Alexander's attention. At first he chose neutrality in the Napoleonic Wars, but eventually he opposed French expansion. After suffering a decisive defeat at the Battle of Friedland, 1807, Alexander signed the Treaty of Tilsit, becoming Napoleon's ally. Later, Alexander broke with Napoleon, and in 1812 Napoleon invaded Russia.
In 1813 Alexander became one of the leaders of a coalition of nations opposing Napoleon. To maintain stability in Europe after Napoleon's final defeat, Alexander entered the Holy and Quadruple alliances with the other great powers, 1815. The concluding years of his reign were marked by rising discontent, as his policies became increasingly unpopular.
Alexander II (Russian: Aleksandr Nikolaevich) (1818-1881) was czar from 1855 to 1881, succeeding his father, Nicholas I. Although basically conservative, Alexander saw that reform was necessary in economically backward Russia. Despite bitter opposition from the landed nobility, he freed the serfs in 1861. This action made administrative and judicial reorganization necessary. Local elective assemblies and local courts were created. Alexander also reorganized the Russian army, limited the power of the secret police, and allowed greater freedom to the press and the universities.
Alexander's reforms pleased neither the nobility, who thought they went too far, nor the revolutionaries, who thought they did not go far enough. A rebellion in Russian Poland in 1863 made Alexander less disposed toward reform. Severe measures were taken to stamp out the growing revolutionary spirit in Russia. Some reforms were withdrawn, others curtailed.
During Alexander's reign, Russia expanded into the Caucasus region and Central Asia. A significant victory was won over Turkey in the Russo-Turkish War, 1877-78. Within Russia, however, tensions were increasing. Revolutionaries became as ruthless as the government. In 1881 Alexander was assassinated by a radical group called the People's Will.
Alexander III (Russian: Aleksandr Aleksandrovich) (1845-1894) was czar from 1881 to 1894, succeeding his father, Alexander II. Because of his father's assassination by radicals, Alexander ordered the destruction of the revolutionary movement in Russia. To strengthen autocratic rule, he set up repressive measures, much like those of his grandfather, Nicholas I.
Alexander brought back censorship, substantially reduced the power of the local governing councils, and persecuted the Jews. He began a program to impose Russian culture on the subject peoples of the empire. He encouraged industrialization and also established factory laws guaranteeing workers a minimum wage and standard working conditions, although these were widely ignored.
During Alexander's reign, Russia extended its Asiatic boundaries as far as Afghanistan without war. Alexander sought to strengthen Russia's position as the dominant power in the Balkans and formed an alliance with France, 1891-94.
Scotland
Alexander II (1198-1249) was king from 1214 to 1249, succeeding his father, William the Lion. Alexander joined the English barons opposing King John of England in 1215 and was excommunicated by the pope, who supported John. He was later reconciled with the Church, and in 1217 he established friendly relations with John's successor, Henry III, marrying Henry's eldest sister, Joan, in 1221. In 1230 Alexander turned back a Norse invasion of Scotland.
The friendship with England ended when Joan died in 1238, and Alexander then married the daughter of a French noble. In 1244 Henry massed an army to invade the Scottish kingdom and demand homage from Alexander. The dispute was settled without war by a treaty at Newcastle. In 1249 Alexander was leading an expedition to wrest control of the Hebrides Islands from Norway when he died of fever.
Alexander III (1241-1286) was king from 1249 to 1286, succeeding his father, Alexander II. He assumed the throne at the age of eight and two years later was married to Margaret, eldest daughter of King Henry III of England. During Alexander's minority, the kingdom was under the regency of English and Scottish nobles who constantly struggled with one another for power. Shortly after coming of age, he turned back an invading force led by King Haakon IV of Norway at the battle of Largs, 1263. As a result, the contested Hebrides and the Isle of Man were ceded to Scotland, 1266.
The remaining years of Alexander's reign, a golden age in Scottish history, were marked by peace, prosperity, and independence. He died without a male heir and his dynasty ended with the brief reign of his young granddaughter, Margaret.
Yugoslavia
Alexander I (1888-1934) was king of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes from 1921 to 1929, and of Yugoslavia from 1929 to 1934. The son of Peter I of Serbia, Alexander was named crown prince in 1909. He led the Serbian armies in the Balkan Wars (1912-13) and in World War I. In 1918 the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes was created with Alexander as regent. He succeeded his father as king in 1921.
Continual disorder followed the formation of the kingdom because of the ethnic, religious, and language differences among its various peoples. Hoping to end the discord and promote national unity, Alexander abolished the 1921 constitution and set up a royal dictatorship in 1929. He changed the name of the country to Yugoslavia, dissolved the parliament, centralized the government, and suppressed political parties.
Although a new constitution was issued in 1931, Alexander's personal rule continued. His policies failed to end the dissension and he was assassinated by a Macedonian terrorist while on a goodwill tour to France.