Introduction to History of South America
The first inhabitants of South America were probably descendants of Asians who crossed the Bering Strait in prehistoric times. It is generally believed that they reached South America between 12,000 and 14,000 years ago, but some archeological evidence suggests that settlement may have taken place earlier. These prehistoric people were nomadic hunters. The development of agriculture probably first took place along the coast of Peru. Simple village life with some cultivation also developed in the Amazon and Orinoco river basins at an early date.
Agriculture and civilization advanced most rapidly in the valleys of the Andes. The most magnificent civilization was that of the Inca Empire, which arose in about the 13th century A.D. Beyond the Andes, most of the Indians were still at a primitive cultural level at the end of the 15th century.
European Discovery and Conquest
The first European known to have reached South America was Christopher Columbus, in 1498, during his third voyage from Spain to the New World. Several years earlier, rivalry between Spain and Portugal to colonize new lands caused Pope Alexander VI to draw the Line of Demarcation, which excluded Spain from Africa and Portugal from the known areas of the New World. Spanish conquistadors soon followed Columbus to establish colonies and to search for silver and gold.
In the 1530's, Francisco Pizarro sailed south from Panama to conquer the Incas of Peru. From here, the Spaniards explored the surrounding territory. An expedition under Sebastián de Belalcázar moved north and subdued the Inca kingdom at Quito (now Ecuador). His forces then pushed into southwest Colombia. Expeditions were also sent south into Chile and east, across the Andes, into Brazil. During the expedition to Brazil, Francisco de Orellana made his way to the mouth of the Amazon River.
Conquest of the northern coastal region known as the Spanish Main was hindered by hostile Indians and forbidding jungles. A few coastal settlements were established in the early 1500's, but the interior was not penetrated until the 1530's. Spanish exploration in eastern South America was concentrated in the region of the Río de la Plata, discovered in 1516, and its tributary rivers.
Meanwhile, in 1500 the Portuguese explorer Pedro Alvares Cabral had discovered that part of the continent (eastern Brazil) was on the Portuguese side of the Line of Demarcation. Few attempts were made to explore the interior, however.
The Colonial Period
Spanish South America was ruled as the king's private property. From the 16th to the early 19th centuries, it was governed by a complex administrative system. Viceroys were the king's representatives and the highest authorities in the colonies. Three vice-royalties were set up—Peru, New Granada, and La Plata. They were divided into administrative districts presided over by captains general. An audiencia (court of appeal) exercised judicial authority over a specified area. Captains general and the presidents of audiencias often came to rival the viceroys in power.
The colonial period was marked by a rigidly stratified society. At the top of the system were the peninsulares , Spaniards born in Spain, followed by the creoles , persons of pure Spanish ancestry born in America. The peninsulares held all of the major offices. The creoles were followed by the mestizos , of mixed Spanish and Indian ancestry, and at the bottom were the Indians and Negroes.
In Portuguese South America, large areas were granted by the king to nobles, who were responsible for colonization. Early settlement was limited to the coast. In the mid-16th century, Brazil was united under a single colonial administration. During the 17th and 18th centuries, the interior was penetrated by missionaries and by farmers seeking land. A rigid class system did not develop in Brazil.
Mining, agriculture, and ranching were the main occupations of the South American colonists. The Indians were forced to work as slaves in the mines and on the haciendas (plantations). Many of them died of overwork and of diseases introduced by Europeans. African slaves were therefore imported, especially along the northern and eastern coasts.
Roman Catholic missionaries were a powerful force in the colonial era. They established many missions among the Indians. The Jesuits were one of the most influential orders; the La Plata basin was largely under their control for more than a century.
The English, French, and Dutch were interested in South American trade and established settlements in the northeast.
Colonialism: Americas. This map shows European colonies in the Americas around 1763. At that time, European colonies covered extensive areas in North, Central, and South America. France, Portugal, Spain, and Britain controlled the greatest amount of territory. The main era of colonization in America ended in the late 1820's, following a series of armed rebellions.Independence
Uprisings against the Spanish colonial governments became frequent toward the end of the 18th century. Most were led by creoles, who resented Spain's tight control over the economy and politics. By 1810, revolutionary movements were under way in most of Spanish South America. Complete independence was finally achieved in 1825, after a series of bloody wars. The two great leaders of the revolution were Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín.
Brazil achieved independence from Portugal in 1822, almost without bloodshed. England, France, and Holland continued to hold their small colonies.
Simón Bolívar envisioned a confederation of all of Spanish South America. All efforts at consolidation failed, however, and nine weak nations were carved out of the three Spanish viceroyalties. Many boundary disputes erupted among the new nations, with some leading to war.
The Argentine-Brazilian War (1825–28) was fought over Uruguay, which both countries claimed. Through British mediation, the war ended in recognition of Uruguay as an independent country.
The War of the Peru-Bolivian Confederation (1837–39) was caused by the political union of Peru and Bolivia. Chile felt threatened and declared war, which ended in the defeat of the confederation.
The War of the Triple Alliance (1865–70) was fought by Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay against Paraguay, which was threatening the political stability of the region. The war ended with the crushing defeat of Paraguay.
The War of the Pacific (1879–83), in which Peru and Bolivia were allied against Chile, was fought for control of the mineral-rich Atacama Desert. Peru and Bolivia were defeated, and Bolivia was deprived of an outlet to the Pacific Ocean.
The Chaco War (1932–35) was fought by Bolivia and Paraguay over the long-disputed Chaco territory. Paraguay won most of the disputed area, but under the terms of the 1938 peace treaty Bolivia was provided with an outlet to the Atlantic Ocean.
Peruvian-Ecuadorian Border Disputes have occurred frequently; Ecuador lost some territory in 1942, following one serious dispute.
Modern Developments
Political instability plagued most South American countries throughout the 19th century and into the 20th. Revolutions were frequent, and the constant turmoil led to the rise of dictatorships. Social inequalities dating from the colonial period continued. Growing pressure from the laboring and middle classes for social and political reforms became widespread. Economic problems, especially inflation, were common in the period following World War II and added to the unrest.
South America's population increased rapidly during the 1950's and 1960's. Many rural laborers moved to the cities to search for jobs. Land reforms were undertaken in several countries; large estates were broken up to provide more of the rural population with land. Economic difficulties and a heightened sense of nationalism led several countries to take control of foreign-owned industries. In the 1960's and 1970's Communist-led revolutionaries were active in a number of countries, and most nations were at one time or another under military rule. During the 1980's a number of countries replaced military rule with democratic rule, and by the mid-1990's all had some form of democratically elected governments.
Economic problems—particularly those caused by the huge national debts owed to foreign banks and countries by many South American nations—continued into the 1990's. By the late 1990's, however, the economies of some countries, including Chile, and Argentina, had recovered and had experienced strong economic growth.