Introduction to History of Afghanistan
The independent existence of Afghanistan dates only from the mid-18th century, but archeologists believe that the area was inhabited as early as the Old Stone Age.
Invasions
Because of Afghanistan's strategic location, the country was invaded repeatedly. About 2000 B.C., Indo-European nomads moved into what is now Afghanistan, displacing the early settlers. Centuries later, Ariana, as it was known, was invaded by Alexander the Great, who introduced Hellenistic civilization, 330–326 B.C. Buddhism spread to Afghanistan in the third century B.C. During the same period, Greeks from Bactria established an independent kingdom, which included part of Afghanistan and northern India.
For centuries Afghanistan remained divided, a battleground in the struggle for domination of central Asia. The Muslims began their conquest in 652 A.D. Following the invasion by the hordes of Genghis Khan, 1219–27, Afghanistan was controlled by Mongols for some 100 years. In the 14th century, forces led by Tamerlane took possession of the region. In the early 1500's, Baber invaded Afghanistan and then India, founding the great Mogul Empire in 1526. Until the 18th century, both India and Persia held parts of Afghanistan.
Independence
Nadir Shah succeeded in conquering all of Afghanistan and unifying it under a Persian regime in 1738. After Nadir's death in 1747, Ahmad Shah founded the independent kingdom of Afghanistan. Dost Mohammed became emir (ruler) in 1835, establishing the Barakzai Dynasty, which ruled for almost 100 years.
During the 19th century, the little country was involved in the power struggle between Great Britain and Russia. Two wars were fought for control of Afghanistan—the First (1839–42) and Second (1878–80) Afghan Wars. In 1880 the British persuaded Abder-Rahman Khan, the emir, to accept an annual subsidy in return for control of the Khyber Pass. Although the country remained independent, Britain directed its foreign policy and guaranteed its boundaries.
In 1919, Amanullah Khan became emir and invaded India. Although the invasion was unsuccessful, a peace treaty with Great Britain recognized the complete independence of Afghanistan. Amanullah attempted to introduce modern reforms into his backward country, but the conservative tribal groups revolted, and he was forced to abdicate in 1929. Mohammed Nadir Shah, his successor, was proclaimed king and followed a policy of ruling in consultation with the tribes. He was assassinated in 1933, and his son, Mohammed Zahir Shah, ascended to the throne.
After World War II
The country was neutral in World War II and pursued a policy of non-alignment in the cold war. Both the United States and the Soviet Union provided extensive economic aid. During 1953–63, under Premier Mohammed Daoud, a cousin of the king, modern industries were established, education was expanded, and, for the first time, women were permitted to obtain an education, to work, and to wear Western dress.
In 1964 Afghanistan became a constitutional monarchy with an elected parliament. In 1973, however, Mohammed Daoud overthrew the government and the monarchy and returned to rule as virtual dictator. He, in turn, was overthrown in 1978 by Marxist officers in the armed forces.
The new regime established close ties with the Soviet Union and attempted to impose Communism on the country. Groups of strongly religious and tradition-bound Afghans (known collectively as mujahidin) rebelled against the government. The inability of the government to defeat the mujahidin led to a coup by rival Communists in September, 1979. They, in turn, were overthrown in December in a coup engineered by the Soviet Union, which installed a puppet leader, Babrak Karmal, and brought in some 120,000 troops to help put down the rebellion. Fighting continued as the mujahidin, aided by the United States, waged a guerrilla war against the Soviets and pro-Soviet Afghans. Driven by famine and civil war, many people fled the country; by the late 1980's about 5 million had left.
In 1986, the Soviets replaced Karmal with a new leader, Mohammed Najibullah. During 1988–89, the Soviet Union withdrew all of its troops. In 1990, Najibullah abandoned Marxism-Leninism. The mujahidin, however, continued its guerrilla campaign against the government. In 1992, the mujahidin captured Kabul and established an Islamic republic. To that end, alcohol was banned, the death penalty was introduced, and strict Islamic dress for women was reinforced. Fighting then broke out between various mujahidin groups. One group, known as the Taliban, emerged as the most powerful, having captured nearly two-thirds of the country, including Kabul, by 1996. The Taliban established a Council of Ministers to run the country and imposed an even stricter Islamic code. The new measures included outlawing the education and employment of women and introducing amputations and public stonings as forms of punishment.
In 1998, the United States launched limited air strikes against terrorist camps in Afghanistan in retaliation for the bombings of two U.S. embassies in Africa. The bombings had been organized with the help of Osama bin Laden, a Saudi exile harbored by the Taliban. Bin Laden was also the leader of Al Qaeda, an Islamic terrorist network.
By the end of 2000, the Taliban controlled more than 90 per cent of the country, but groups opposed to the Taliban, such as the Northern Alliance, had strongholds in the north. Continued fighting worsened the effects of a severe drought and famine.
In September 2001, the United States government demanded that the Taliban relinquish Osama bin Laden, who was suspected of organizing the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, against the United States. These attacks included the hijacking of four aircraft, two of which were flown into the twin towers of the World Trade Center in New York City, causing their collapse. The Taliban refused the demands of the United States. In October, the United States and its allies, including the Northern Alliance, began a sustained military campaign against the Taliban and against Al Qaeda forces in Afghanistan.
By the end of November 2001, the Taliban had been removed from power and replaced with an interim government, led by Hamid Karzai. The government was charged with, among other things, maintaining peace and security within Afghanistan until a national council could be elected and democratic elections could be held. In national elections held in 2004 after the adoption of a new constitution for the country, Karzai was elected president. Despite progress with forming the new government, clashes between regional and ethnic rivals continued throughout the country, contributing to its instability. Crucial support for the new government was being provided by the United Nations.
In August 2009, Afghanistan held a presidential election and Karzai received the most votes. However, many voting irregularities were found, leading to a runoff election being scheduled. Before the election, Karzai's opponent withdrew. Election officials declared that Karzai had won the presidency.