Ancient Egypt: History, Pyramids & Civilization

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Introduction to Egypt, Ancient

The pyramids of Egypt at Giza are the best preserved of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. They still attract many visitors to Giza, just outside the present-day city of Cairo.

Egypt, Ancient. More than 3,000 years before the Christian Era, a highly developed civilization existed in Egypt. The country at that time consisted of little more than the valley and delta of the Nile River. It was one of the great powers of the ancient Middle East, retaining its dominant position for more than 2,000 years---many times longer than did other strong kingdoms that rose in that part of the world.

When Egyptian antiquities, preserved by the dry climate and isolation of their desert locations, first became known to outsiders in modern times, it was believed that the world's earliest civilization had evolved in Egypt. As scholars learned more of ancient history, they found that some important early developments apparently had originated in neighboring lands, such as Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) and Palestine. However, Egyptian achievements in many fields of activity stand as milestones in the history of civilization.

Scholarly interest in ancient Egypt dates from Napoleon Bonaparte's invasion of 1798. The French conquerors were astonished and awed by the pyramids, the Sphinx, and other relics of the distant past. Study of the ancient ruins and artifacts began at once, inaugurating the field of research known as Egyptology. The Rosetta Stone, carrying the same inscription in two forms of Egyptian writing and in Greek, supplied the key to Egypt's written history.

Excavation of tombs and temples produced paintings, sculptures, inscriptions, and artifacts that gave a detailed picture of life in ancient Egypt. Among archeologists known for their work in Egypt are Sir Flinders Petrie, who excavated very early sites and established a chronology, and Howard Carter, who discovered the tomb of Pharaoh (King) Tutankhamen. An outstanding American Egyptologist was James Breasted, who founded the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago.

Most of Egypt's ancient history is expressed in terms of numbered dynasties (ruling houses). The three periods of greatest development are called the Old Kingdom, the Middle Kingdom, and the New Kingdom.

Formation of the Kingdom

Ancient man lived first by hunting and gathering wild foods. In the Nile Valley he learned very early to grow grain crops and to raise livestock. The Nile River overflowed its banks for about half of each year, leaving a deposit of fertile silt. There was little or no rain. To first drain the fields and to then irrigate them required men working together, and so the early Egyptians became organized into communities. Ancient Egyptian, the common language, was an Afro-Asiatic tongue related to the present-day Berber, Cushitic, and Coptic tongues. Racially, the Egyptians were a Mediterranaen subgroup of the Caucasoid race. They have traditionally been called Hamites, but the term is no longer used by most scholars.

The Lighthouse of Alexandria, Egypt, was the world's first important lighthouse. It guided ships into the city's harbor for about 1,500 years before being toppled by an earthquake.

There was also some contact with neighboring countries. Egyptians sailed to the Lebanon coast for cedar oil, resins, and timber. They obtained copper from the Sinai Peninsula. With copper for tools, the Egyptians learned to carve stone and soon were producing handsome stone vases as well as fine sculptures.

For trade goods the Egyptians had many products---salt from the shallow waters of the Delta; beads of glass, which they discovered how to make about 4000 B.C.; papyrus stalks for rope, baskets, and a writing material called papyrus; linen woven from the native flax; jewelry made of the gold and gemstones found in the Eastern Desert. The Egyptians, however, often obtained their imports by sending military expeditions to take what was wanted rather than by trading.

Monarchy developed as the system of government in each of the Two Lands, and a struggle for supremacy began. Apparently Lower Egypt gained control briefly about 3400 B.C. Around that time a new people started to appear among the Egyptians, bringing with them art forms and objects of Mesopotamian origin, and introducing Semitic words into the language. Some of the newcomers became members of the ruling class.

Dynasties I and II

About 3100 B.C. a king of Upper Egypt conquered Lower Egypt and united the Two Lands. According to tradition, the king was Menes, but a carved inscription names Narmer as the conqueror. Rulers had several names, however, and Menes and Narmer may have been the same person. The conqueror is reckoned as the founder of Dynasty I. Memphis was founded as the capital of the united country.

The king came to be called the pharaoh. He was considered an incarnation of the god Horus. Theoretically, he owned all the land and had complete power over all affairs, both civil and religious.

Religion

The Egyptians had many gods and goddesses. Each community or region had its own favorite, and as time passed various local deities rose to national importance. Shrines and temples from this era have not survived.

The Egyptians had many gods and goddesses.

The early tombs were mastabas, rectangular structures of mud brick, with slightly sloping walls. By the end of Dynasty II, the interiors of royal mastabas were being constructed of cut stone.

Writing

Pictographic writing (writing in which pictures represent objects) developed in Egypt about the time the Two Lands were united, apparently a little later than in Mesopotamia. It was carved in stone or painted on walls or on papyrus. There soon evolved the system of hieroglyphics, in which pictographs came to represent ideas as well as objects. Later, hieroglyphs were also used to represent sounds. Instead of developing the sound symbols into an alphabet, the Egyptians used them for some 3,000 years only to supplement the other hieroglyphs.

Arts and Crafts

Egypt was a rich country, and many persons were engaged in creating luxuries for the wealthy. Goldsmiths and lapidaries produced beautiful jewelry. Sculptors carved stone and ivory into exquisite figurines and vessels. Apothecaries made ointments, lotions, and perfumes, and craftsmen shaped delicate alabaster vials to contain them.

The Old Kingdom (2650 B.C.-2150 B.C.)

Ancient Egypt: Three periods. This map shows ancient Egypt during three periods. During the Old Kingdom (about 2650-2150 B.C), Egypt consisted of the Nile Delta region and the area along the Nile River south to Elephantine. During the Middle Kingdom (about 1975-1640 B.C.), Egypt extended its control along the river south to Buhen. During the New Kingdom (about 1539-1075 B.C.), the boundaries of Egypt grew to include much of the desert area surrounding the Nile, Nubia to the south, and the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea.

To ensure the royal succession, the pharaoh had several wives. The oldest son of the chief wife was the heir; if she had no sons, the throne could go to the son of another wife. If the chief wife had only daughters, one of them might be married to a halfbrother, son of a lesser wife, reinforcing his right to the throne and assuring it to the chief wife's descendants.

During the Old Kingdom Egypt made great advances in mathematics and astronomy. The world's first calendar based on the solar year was adopted. The outstanding accomplishment was the development of the great stone pyramids. Each pharaoh built his own tomb, intending it to serve as a monument to his greatness. Djoser, a Dynasty III pharaoh, had an official, Imhotep, who built his master a pyramid instead of a mastaba. The Step Pyramid, as it is called, is the first known structure built entirely of stone and the first of pyramid shape. It is at Saqqara, the necropolis (cemetery) of Memphis.

The Great Pyramid, built at Giza by Khufu of Dynasty IV, is the largest edifice ever constructed entirely by manual labor. Nearby is one almost as large, built by Khafre, who also had the Sphinx carved as a monument to himself.

Toward the end of the Old Kingdom a class of feudal lords developed. The pharaoh, rather than being the main god, became in religious belief merely the son of a god. His power was no longer absolute, and at the end of Dynasty VI the country fell into chaos.

The First Intermediate Period (2181 B.C.-2040 B.C.)

Beginning with Dynasty VII, 2181 B.C.-2173 B.C., the pharaoh continued on the throne in Memphis, but most of the provincial governors became hereditary rulers in their own right. Irrigation suffered, there were crop failures and famine, and foreign trade ceased. In 2160 B.C., a ruler in Heracleopolis, just south of the Faiyum area, established himself as pharaoh, founding Dynasty IX. Armies became important, as the new dynasty sought to expand its authority and the provincial rulers sought to keep theirs.

Dynasty XI was founded in the southern city of Thebes in 2133 B.C. One of its pharaohs, Mentuhotep II, became powerful enough to defeat the Heracleopolitans, uniting Egypt under his rule in 2040 B.C.

The Middle Kingdom (2040 B.C.-1786 B.C.)

Under the Theban pharaohs the mines of the Eastern Desert, which had fallen out of Egyptian hands, were taken over again and contact with foreign countries reestablished. See trade was carried on with Ugarit in Syria and the Minoan kingdom in Crete; Egypt exported pottery, glass, stonework, metalwork, textiles, and jewelry. Construction of new irrigation facilities opened up a large part of the Faiyum area for agriculture. To the south, Nubia, which was disrupting commerce with Punt, was invaded several times and finally annexed for its gold mines. There were also campaigns against Libya and into Palestine.

A new capital was founded near Memphis early in the era, but Thebes remained important. The Theban god Amen rose to supremacy, becoming the foremost national god. Many temples were built during the Middle Kingdom. Both art and literature reached a stage of refinement that came to be regarded as classic and therefore the model for centuries to come. Sciences such as mathematics and medicine were highly developed. Scribes, clerks who did the actual writing on papyri, often rose to important posts.

Toward the end of Dynasty XII royal power declined. The pharaohs became puppet rulers dominated by high court officials.

The Second Intermediate Period (1786 B.C.-1567 B.C.)

Of Dynasty XIII little is definitely known except that there were many pharaohs, some not of royal birth. For a time Egypt remained united and even extended its foreign influence. The eastern Delta, however, was gradually being occupied by settlers, known as the Hyksos, from Asia. Dynasty XIV was set up as a second government in the western Delta, perhaps by leaders who saw the country disintegrating. The Hyksos captured Memphis about 1674 B.C., and Dynasties XIII and XIV both finally collapsed. By that time the Hyksos were in control of most of Egypt, and dynasties XV and XVI consisted of Hyksos kings.

In the south, a Theban family served as vassal rulers for the Hyksos. Gradually the Theban dynasty, known as XVII, made itself independent. Then, using weapons introduced by the Hyksos, especially the horse-drawn war chariot, the Thebans drove the Hyksos far back to the north.

The New Kingdom (1567 B.C.-1085 B.C.)

New Kingdom

Pharaoh Ahmose I came to power in 1570 B.C., founding Dynasty XVIII. His expulsion of the Hyksos from the eastern Delta in 1567 B.C. marks the reunification of Egypt and the beginning of the New Kingdom. Later Ahmose conquered Nubia, in the south.

Under later pharaohs of Dynasty XVIII, Egypt became a large empire. Thutmose I advanced into Palestine and Syria. Thutmose II reigned only briefly and was succeeded in 1504 B.C. by a young son, Thutmose III, whose stepmother, Hatshepsut, served as regent. The next year she assumed the title of pharaoh, officially sharing rule with Thutmose. She was the real ruler of Egypt for two decades. Upon her death, Thutmose continued his reign, and his rule was long and productive. He created an empire, with the rulers of Palestinian, Syrian, and Mesopotamian kingdoms as his vassals.

It was the beginning of Egypt's golden age. During the 15th century B.C. the country was the greatest power of the civilized world, the land of plenty, the center of a vast international-trade network, and the embodiment of luxury and culture. Nomadic tribes, such as the Israelites from Palestine, would travel to Egypt, where there was food, in times of famine. Amenhotep II, son of Thutmose III, reinforced Egyptian authority in the conquered territories. His grandson Amenhotep III ruled as a true emperor, receiving rich tribute from his vassal countries.

The god Amen-Re (as Amen had come to be known) had long been the principal god of Egypt. Amenhotep IV, however, believed the god Aton to be the one great divinity. The pharaoh changed his name to Akhnaton; built a new capital, Akhetaton (also called Tell el' Amarna); and with his queen, Nefertiti, attempted to change Egypt's religion. During his reign the Hittites from Asia Minor began expanding into Syria, and many vassal rulers regained independence. Akhnaton was succeeded by his young son-in-law Tutankhamen, who was quickly persuaded to restore the worship of Amen-Re and whose early death left Egypt badly disorganized.

After a high official and an army commander had served as pharaohs, Ramses I, another army commander, founded Dynasty XIX. All efforts were turned toward reestablishing the empire, but Syria remained under Hittite control. In the first quarter of the 13th century, the Egyptians under Ramses II fought the Hittites at Kadesh, Syria. Although Ramses had the battle recorded as an Egyptian victory, it was actually a stalemate. Egypt could not regain northern Syria; the Hittites could not win Palestine. As a result, one of the first international peace treaties in history was concluded.

Ramses' successors turned back an invasion from Libya, but gradually lost control inside Egypt. The Israelites, mentioned in a single inscription of about 1220 B.C., made their exodus from Egypt.

Under Dynasty XX, order was restored and new foreign attacks were repulsed by Ramses III. He won two victories against the Libyans, ending their attempted invasions, and about 1200 B.C. also repulsed an attack by the ``sea peoples,'' later known as Philistines. Egypt was becoming impoverished, however, from war, royal building projects, and a greedy priesthood. Ramses III was killed in a palace coup and was succeeded by a series of ineffectual rulers. The empire shrank, bit by bit, and finally the throne was usurped by the priests of Amen.

Architecture and Art

During the New Kingdom, the pharaohs built a profusion of colossal temples, dedicated to favorite gods or memorializing themselves. Temple complexes included gigantic statues as well as tall stone shafts known as obelisks. Many of the structures were quite far south, between Abydos and Abu Simbel, where temples of Ramses II and his queen were carved into solid rock. A number were located at Thebes near the barren Valley of the Kings, where pharaohs beginning with Thutmose I chose to have their tombs.

Portrait sculpture and painting changed greatly during the reign of Akhnaton. The long-established formal style gave way to one of naturalism. With the return to the old religion, however, art returned to its stylized form. The opulence of the goldwork and ornamental art of the New Kingdom were not truly appreciated until the discovery of Tutankhamen's tomb in 1922.

The Long Decline

With priestly usurpers in Thebes, a rival monarchy arose in the Delta. Nubia regained its independence and became the kingdom of Cush. Meanwhile, a colony of hired Libyan soldiers had become sufficiently large that in the middle of the 10th century B.C. one of its leaders seized the throne and reunited the country. The Libyan dynasties collapsed after two centuries from civil warfare. Cush then invaded Egypt and ruled it from the Mid-eighth century until the Assyrians, from Mesopotamia, conquered Egypt in 670. Native princes acted as vassal rulers for Assyria; in some 20 years one of them threw off Assyrian control and founded Dynasty XXVI.

For more than a century Egypt had a resurgence of glory, with flourishing commerce and art. Then, in 525 B.C., the Persians under Cambyses marched in and made Egypt a province of their empire. During the next two centuries, despite occasional revolts, Persian sovereignty prevailed.

The Ptolemaic Era

Alexander the Great began his conquest of the Persian Empire in 333 B.C. After he conquered Syria, Phoenicia (the Lebanese coastline), and Palestine, he occupied Egypt, where he was welcomed as a liberator and declared pharaoh and son of Amen. Alexander put fellow Macedonians at the head of government and founded a port city, Alexandria, before continuing his campaign. When he died in the field in 323, his general Ptolemy took Alexander's body back to Egypt, where it was finally entombed in Alexandria and, according to tradition, exhibited in later years in a glass coffin.

Alexander's empire was soon dissolved. Ptolemy, after serving as governor of Egypt, declared himself pharaoh about 306 B.C. Other generals also established their own monarchies; the one adjoining Egypt on the east was the Seleucid kingdom, centered on Syria. The domains of Alexander's successors were called Hellenistic, because the Macedonians were a branch of the Greek (Hellenic) peoples.

Under the first three Ptolemies, Egypt was brought to a high state of administrative and economic efficiency. A great merchant fleet was constructed. The camel, ideal for desert travel, was introduced into Egypt from Asia. Almost all authority was held by Greeks and other foreigners; the Egyptians were used as bureaucrats and laborers. However, the Ptolemies treated the priesthood with respect and honored the native divinities. They also observed many customs of the pharaohs, including brother-sister marriages.

For the sake of commerce, the Ptolemies wished to control the eastern Mediterranean. They expanded their rule westward along the African coast and also moved east and north into Seleucid territory. This led to a series of Syrian wars. Egypt at first was victorious, gaining control of Palestine and Phoenicia. At the end of the third century B.C., however, the Seleucids retook the territory. Egypt, weakened by a revolt in the south and the growing independence of its bureaucracy, made peace, which was celebrated by the marriage of Cleopatra, daughter of the Seleucid king, to Ptolemy V in 196 B.C.

Rome, the rising power in the Mediterranean world, wanted no rival power becoming too strong. When the Seleucids invaded Egypt in 169 B.C., Rome forced them to withdraw, and Egypt became in effect a Roman protectorate. In 49 B.C. civil war broke out between the Roman leaders, Julius Caesar and Pompey. Pompey, defeated, fled to Egypt, where Ptolemy XII had him killed. The young pharaoh was engaged in a struggle with Cleopatra VII, his sister and wife, for the throne. When Caesar arrived in pursuit of Pompey, he declared Cleopatra the rightful ruler.

After Caesar's death, Mark Antony became a coruler of Rome and administrative head of the eastern provinces. Soon he married Cleopatra and in 34 B.C. declared her and her sons rulers of most of his territory. Octavian, Antony's coruler, declared war and in 31 B.C. won a great victory over Antony and Cleopatra in the naval battle of Actium, off Greece. Antony and Cleopatra fled to Egypt; when Octavian followed them there the next year, they both committed suicide. Egypt became a Roman province.

The most important cultural development of the Ptolemaic era was the establishment of the Alexandrian Museum and Library. This great institution attracted scholars from the whole Mediterranean world and made Alexandria the foremost intellectual center of its time. It helped to make Greek the common language of literature and learning throughout the Middle East.

Egypt In the Roman Empire

Roman Egypt was a country rich in produce and manufactures, which Rome utilized for its own benefit. Five million bushels of Egyptian wheat were sent to Rome each year, as well as vegtable oils, textiles, papyrus, glass, jewelry, and perfume. Meanwhile, the people were taxed to the limit. When they revolted, the uprisings were quickly crushed.

Alexandria, a major port for Roman trade with Asia, remained a great intellectual center as well, where classical Greek learning served as the foundation of scholarship. When Christianity came to Egypt in the first century A.D., Egyptians were quickly converted, and Alexandria became a center of Christian theology.

The Roman emperor Diocletian divided the empire for administrative purposes in 286, and it remained permanently divided after the death of Emperor Theodosius in 395. Egypt lay in the eastern part, later known as the Byzantine Empire.

Deities of Ancient Egypt

Over a period of some 3,500 years, Egyptians held first one god or goddess, then another, in highest esteem. A deity might gradually assume a new name or a new identity, or might be almost forgotten. But none was ever eliminated from the roster. Consequently, by the end of the ancient era Egypt had a multitude of nationally recognized deities, and incredibly vast sums of money had been spent on shrines, temples, and support of the priesthood.

Originally, most Egyptian deities supposedly had the shapes of animals; after being given human form, they were still often pictured with animal heads. Animal worship was preserved in cults such as those of Apis (the sacred bull) and the sacred scarab.

The Theban god Amen and the sun god Re both rose to supreme position and finally merged into one god.

Osiris, the god of the underworld and judge of the dead, was one of ancient Egypt's most important deities.

The great mother goddess common to all early religions was represented by Hathor and Isis. The worship of Isis was revived in the Hellenistic period and spread throughout the Mediterranean world, lasting into the Christian Era.

Egyptian religion often had a holy family. The latest of these to be venerated consisted of Isis, Osiris, and their son Horus.