Horses: History, Significance, and Cultural Impact

Horse

Introduction to Horse

The horse is an animal long prized for its strength, speed, and beauty. Horses have served man in battle, at work, on the hunt, and in sports. Stone Age man drew pictures of horses on cave walls, and from the days of ancient civilizations to modern times horses have been among the most popular of all subjects for paintings, sculpture, and tapestries. The horse also has a prominent place in mythology and literature.

The horse has played a prominent role in human history.

Chiron, a centaur (half horse, half man), and the winged horse Pegasus are notable in mythology. Among the most beloved horses found in literature are Black Beauty, from Anna Sewell's novel of the same name, and Flicka, from Mary O'Hara's My Friend Flicka. Famous horses that actually lived include Alexander the Great's Bucephalus, Robert E. Lee's Traveller, and U. S. Grant's Cincinnati; Justin Morgan, the only horse for whom a breed was named; and such racehorses as Dan Patch and Man o'War.

Even after death the horse serves man. Horsehide provides a fine quality leather. Hair from the mane and tail is used for stuffing furniture and can be woven into a stiff fabric used in tailoring. Horse meat is made into food for dogs and cats, and is eaten by people in some parts of the world. Other products derived from horses are gelatin, glue, and medical serums.

An adult male horse is a stallion; an adult female, a mare. A stallion kept for breeding is often called a stud or studhorse. (The mares and stallions together on a breeding farm are also known as a stud.) A castrated male is a gelding. A male horse between the time it is weaned and the time it is three or four years old is a colt; a female of the same age is a filly. A young horse is called a foal from the time it is foaled (born) until it is weaned. The mother is its dam; the father is its sire.

The horse is a mammal belonging to the same family (Equidae) as the ass and zebra. The only species of wild horse is Przewalski's horse, found in Central Asia in 1881 by Nicolai Przewalski (or Przhevalski), a Russian explorer. Other so-called wild horses, such as the mustang (also called cayuse and bronco) of the western United States, are descended from domesticated horses that escaped. This article treats mainly the domestic horse, Equus caballus.

Are Horses Loners?

Horses are social animals, not loners. In the wild, they have a strong instinct to belong to a herd. In the herd, they are part of a hierarchy (HY uh rahr kee), which is a group arranged in higher and lower ranks. In a herd, horses are protected from animals that might prey, or feed, upon them. The leader of the herd also leads the horses to food and water.

Whenever two horses meet, they “greet” one another. First, they stretch out their heads and sniff each other’s noses, then they smell other parts of the body. Horses may shove and press against each other, lay their heads on each other’s backs, and touch noses again. The greeting helps the horses to get acquainted, to recognize one another by their scents, to communicate their social status, and maybe even to test their strength.

A domesticated horse may feel it is either above or below a human, but it rarely feels it is the human’s equal. Even though a horse isn’t part of a herd, if a horse sees its owner as its “leader,” it will look to that owner for directions when it is scared or anxious.

Are Horses Smart?

Horses are able to do certain types of thinking. For example, a horse is able to figure out how to open the bolt on a stable door or on a gate. Researchers have also shown that horses are able to classify objects (arrange objects into groups by type).

Horses are usually eager to please their owners or trainers, and most horses can be trained to obey commands. A horse may learn to come to its owner, for example, when the owner whistles. A horse can also be trained to do such things as take a “bow” when its trainer gives a signal.

In fact, horses can learn to respond to even the slightest signals. People who watch an expert rider on a well-trained horse often cannot see these signs. For example, the horse might move forward when the rider’s legs are pressed lightly against the horse’s side. Or, the horse might turn at a touch of the reins and a rider’s leg.

How Do Horses Communicate?

Horses make a variety of sounds, including neighing, whinnying, nickering, squealing, and grunting. These sounds can express a range of emotions. A short whinny is usually a warning call, and a long whinny is an expression of contentment.

Horses also use their bodies to communicate their emotions and moods. This is called body language. For example, before a fight, a horse may stamp the ground with a front foot or rear up on its hind legs.

Other forms of body language include the head and tail. When a horse has its ears pinned back and it reaches its head toward you, it’s sending the message, “Stay back or I may bite you.” When it has its ears forward and its head held high, it may be wondering, “What is this object in front of me?” When a horse swishes its tail, it may be communicating that it is irritated or feeling ill. In the stable, pawing the ground with front feet may be the horse’s way of sending the message that “I want to go out.”

Horse terms Bronco, or bronc, is an untamed Western horse.Colt, technically, is a male horse 4 years old or less. However, the word colt is often used for any young horse.Crossbred means bred from a sire of one breed and a dam of another.Dam is the mother of a foal.Filly is a female horse 4 years old or less.Foal is either a newborn male or a newborn female horse.Frog is the elastic, horny, middle part of the sole of a horse's foot.Gait is any forward movement of the horse, such as the walk, trot, or gallop.Gelding is a male horse that cannot be used for breeding because it has had some of its reproductive organs removed.Grade is an unregistered horse or pony of mixed breed.Hand is a unit used to measure the height of a horse, from the ground to the highest point of the withers. A hand equals 4 inches (10 centimeters).Mare is a female horse more than 4 years old.Mustang is the wild horse of the Western plains, descended from Spanish horses.Pony refers to a horse less than 58 inches (147 centimeters) tall when full grown.Purebred means bred from horses that are of the same breed.Sire is the father of a foal.Stallion is a male horse that can be used for breeding.Yearling is a horse that is more than 1 and less than 2 years old. In the Northern Hemisphere, a race horse is considered a yearling from the first January 1 after its birth until the following January 1. In countries of the Southern Hemisphere, a race horse's official birthday is either July 1 or August 1.Withers is the ridge between a horse's shoulder bones.

General Description

A mare gives birth about 11 months after mating. The newborn foal can stand and walk almost immediately. Most horses reach the peak of their speed and strength at four or five years and are considered “of age” (mature) at about five years. The average life span is 20 to 30 years; the longest recorded is more than 60 years.

How Can You Help a Horse Care for Its Young?

It is important to provide the mare with a clean area to give birth and to be with her newborn. Infection is the biggest risk to a newborn foal, and many infections can be avoided by keeping the birthing area clean and disinfected.

A mare can often give birth to and care for a newborn foal without much help from humans. But, if needed, the foal can be rubbed briskly with clean straw or a towel, if the mare permits it. Make sure the foal nurses within the first two to three hours of its life. If the foal is weak and unable to stand, it may need help. Have both mare and foal examined by a veterinarian immediately after the foal’s birth. Then, carefully monitor the newborn foal for the first few days of its life. A healthy foal should become stronger and more active during this time. Increased time spent lying down or sleepiness may be signs of serious trouble in a foal—call a vet.

BodySize

A horse's height is measured from the ground to the top of the withers. The height is expressed in hands (units of four inches [about 10 cm]). Fractions of hands are expressed in inches preceded by a hyphen. For example, a horse 58 inches (1.47 m) high is said to be 14–2 hands high (14 hands plus 2 inches).

Height and weight at maturity vary with the breed and type of horse. Within a particular breed, stallions are slightly larger than mares. Shetland ponies, smallest of the pony breeds, are commonly only 10 hands high and weigh 300 to 400 pounds (135 to 180 kg). Shires, largest of the work horse breeds, are 16 to 17–2 hands high and often weigh more than 2,000 pounds (900 kg).

How Do Horses Measure Up?

Horses vary greatly in size.

The smallest breed of horse is the Falabella. Falabellas were originally bred in Argentina and are kept as pets. Falabellas measure around 30 inches (76 centimeters) high at the withers and may weigh as little as 70 pounds (32 kilograms).

When fully grown, ponies are less than 58 inches (147 centimeters) high at the withers. Most ponies weigh less than 800 pounds (360 kilograms).

The largest horse breed was developed in England. The shire draft horse can be more than 68 inches (173 centimeters) high at the withers and can weigh 2,000 pounds (910 kilograms) or more. Shires are among the strongest horses.

Most Arabians weigh somewhere between 850 and 1,000 pounds (between 390 and 450 kilograms) and are around 14 to 15 hands (56 to 60 inches, or 142 to 152 centimeters) high.

Hair

The horse's coat is short except for long hair called feather on the legs of some breeds. Horses kept outdoors or left unblanketed grow thick winter coats that are shed in spring. The long, coarse mane and tail are sometimes cut, clipped off, or thinned.

Legs

Horses have long legs with strong muscles and tendons. The forelegs carry 60 to 65 per cent of the body weight and absorb jolts, while the hind legs provide thrust. The hoof corresponds to the nail of a human's middle toe or finger; side toes have disappeared as such through millions of years of evolution. Members of the horse family are the only animals that step on only one toe of each foot.

A horse's hoof corresponds to the nail of a human's middle toe or finger.

Why Can a Horse Run So Fast?

A horse is a beautiful and majestic animal that is well adapted for running. A horse has large muscles in the upper part of its legs that provide speed. Its long, thin legs give the horse a long stride.

A horse’s feet are ideal for running. Each foot is a single, very strong toe. Only the tip of the toe, protected by the strong, curved hoof, touches the ground. The animal that was the ancestor of the horse had two additional toes. Those additional toes changed to bony strips that run from the top to midway down the cannon bone in the leg of a modern horse.

The fastest types of horses are quarter horses and thoroughbreds. The quarter horse can run short distances faster than any other horse. It can run a quarter-mile (0.4 kilometer) in less than 21 seconds. The thoroughbred is faster at long distances. It can run a mile (1.6 kilometer) in 1 minute 33 seconds. By comparison, the fastest a human has ever run a mile in is 3 minutes, 43 seconds.

Head

The horse is well adapted for eating grasses and grain, as its long neck and head can easily be lowered for grazing. The incisors, or cutting teeth, are long and sharp for clipping tough grasses. The molars (grinding teeth) are especially strong and have high crowns. A horse's age can be roughly estimated by the number and condition of its teeth. At the age of five years, a horse has a full set of permanent teeth. A mare usually has 36 teeth; a stallion or gelding, 40.

A horse has keen sight, hearing, and sense of smell. Its eyes, set on the side of the head, move independently of each other and it can see forward with one eye and backward with the other. The horse has a well-developed brain and is capable of complex motor coordination. Its intelligence, however, is not especially high for a mammal.

A horse has keen sight, hearing, and sense of smell.

What Are a Horse’s “Blind Spots”?

A horse can see about 350 degrees—nearly a complete circle—around from its nose because its eyes are positioned on the sides of its head. By comparison, dogs can see only about 240 degrees around, and cats have only a 200-degree field of view. Nonetheless, a horse has some “blind spots,” or areas that it cannot see. These areas include:

The area directly in front of its forehead, extending for about 4 feet (1.2 meters). Never approach a horse directly from the front—if you do so, it can’t see you until you are about 6 inches (15 centimeters) from its face. The area directly under its head on the ground and near its front legs. A horse can’t see its own knees and chest. The area of its back directly behind its head. The area directly behind its tail. This is the most important blind spot to be aware of; if a horse becomes frightened, it could kick and hurt you. Be careful and alert when you walk behind a horse.

What Is Horse Sense?

Horse sense is a term people use to mean “common sense.” It may be that some horses have horse sense, but all horses have physical senses that they use to tell what is happening in their world.

One kind of sense a horse uses is its vision. A horse’s eyes are oval and are set on the sides of its head. The two eyes can be moved independently, each in a half circle. A horse, therefore, can look forward with one eye and backward with the other.

Horses have a well-developed sense of smell. Their nostrils are very large and can pick up scents from far away. Strong wind and heavy rain interfere with their sense of smell and may cause horses to become nervous. A horse uses its sense of smell, along with its vision, to identify people and other horses. A mare identifies her foal by its smell. The foal can also recognize the scent of its mother.

Horses have keen hearing. They have short, pointed ears that they can move around to pick up sounds from almost any direction. Horses can detect sounds above and below the range of sounds that humans can hear.

Color

Certain colors predominate in certain breeds, but color usually varies even within a breed. The name that is used to describe a horse's color takes into account the color of its mane and tail as well as of its coat.

The most common solid (or nearly solid) colors are:

Black

Black coat, mane, and tail.

Brown, or Seal Brown

Black coat with brown areas around the muzzle and the eyes, and the insides of the legs.

Bay

Brown shades, usually red-toned; black mane, tail, and lower legs.

Chestnut, or Sorrel

Brown shades, often yellow-toned; mane and tail the same color as the coat or lighter.

Palomino

Cream to dark gold; flaxen mane and tail; usually with white markings on face and lower legs.

White

Pure white from birth (unlike a gray, which turns white with age); pink skin and blue or brown eyes. White horses are often called albinos. (They are not, however, true albinos—that is, albinos in the biological sense—because their eyes do not lack pigmentation.)

The most common mixed colors and color patterns are:

Gray

Black skin, with black hair at birth; white hair gradually displacing the black as the horse ages. A dapple gray has just enough white hair to look marbled.

Dun, or Buckskin

Grayish yellow; black mane and tail, and usually a black stripe down the back; often with other black markings.

Roan

Uniform mixture of white and colored hairs. A strawberry roan has a mixture of white and chestnut hairs; a blue roan, white and black.

Pinto (Spanish For “painted”), or Paint

White with irregular areas of color. If these areas are black, the horse is called piebald; if they are any other color, the horse is skewbald.

Appaloosa

Mottled black and white skin; white hair dotted with dark spots over part or all of the body. This color pattern is characteristic of the Appaloosa breed and of the Pony of the Americas.

Gaits

The various patterns and rhythms in which a horse moves its legs are called its gaits. A horse usually has three natural gaits and some are trained to perform several artificial gaits as well. The natural gaits of most horses are (1) the walk; (2) either the trot or, less frequently, the pace; and (3) the canter. (The canter is sometimes called the gallop; often, however, that term is reserved for a similar but faster gait, in which case the canter is considered a collected [smooth] gallop.) All artificial gaits are variations of the walk, trot, pace, or canter. Horses of some breeds have as their second natural gait a movement that is neither a trot nor a pace; the fast, loose running walk of the Tennessee Walking Horse is an example.

The terms three-gaited and five-gaited usually refer to American Saddle Horses ridden at three gaits or at five gaits. A three-gaited American Saddle Horse is ridden at a walk, trot, and canter; a five-gaited one at a walk, trot, canter, slow gait (usually a slow, showy stepping pace—a pace with four beats), and rack (a fast, flashy, unnatural four-beat gait).

A horse may perform gaits with high action (knees and hocks bending sharply as the animal lifts its feet) or low action. Breeding may predispose a horse to have naturally high or low action, as it may to perform certain artificial gaits more easily. But training is the major factor in determining the number of gaits and the way in which they are performed.

What Are Gaits?

Gaits are the ways that a horse moves as it walks or runs. Horses have four gaits that are natural to them, which they do not need to be taught: walk, trot, canter, and gallop.

A walk is the slowest gait. The horse moves at about 4 miles (6 kilometers) an hour. In a walk, a horse’s right back foot strikes the ground; then its right front foot strikes the ground; its left back foot, and finally its left front foot. Each step takes place over one beat, so the walk is a four-beat gait.

A trot is a two-beat gait at about 9 miles (14 kilometers) an hour. On the first beat, the horse’s right front and left back foot strike the ground. On the second beat, its left front and right back foot strike the ground.

A canter is a three-beat riding gait. A horse canters at 10 to 12 miles (16 to 19 kilometers) an hour. On the first beat, one back foot strikes the ground. (Some horses begin a canter with their left back foot and others with their right back foot.) On the second beat, the other back foot and opposite front foot hit the ground together. On the third beat, the other front foot strikes the ground.

A gallop is a horse’s fastest natural gait. It consists of four beats. For the first two beats, the back feet strike the ground one after the other. On the third and fourth beats, the front feet hit the ground in the same order as the hind feet did. Then the horse leaps forward, and all its feet leave the ground.

Diseases and Disorders

A horse is susceptible to many diseases and disorders, especially those affecting respiration, circulation, and soundness of legs and feet. The most serious diseases of horses include anthrax; distemper (also called “strangles”), common among young animals; equine encephalomyelitis (“sleeping sickness,” called “encephalitis” in humans); equine infectious anemia (“swamp fever”), a disease of the blood caused by a virus; glanders, an infectious disease most commonly affecting the lungs; rabies; and tetanus (lockjaw). Other diseases include colds and equine influenza, dangerous primarily because they may lead to such complications as pneumonia.

Horses are subject to attack by about 150 different species of internal parasites. These include many kinds of intestinal worms and the larvae of such insects as the botfly. Common external parasites include blowflies and other flies, lice, ticks, and mites. Heavy infestation by internal or external parasites can greatly weaken a horse.

Disorders in structure or function include heaves, or pulmonary emphysema, a respiratory condition in which the horse has trouble forcing air out of its lungs. Colic (abdominal pain) is usually caused by a sudden change in feed or by the horse's eating too fast, working hard soon after eating, or drinking too much at once. A horse with colic may injure itself thrashing about in pain. Wounds, commonly caused by fights with other horses or encounters with barbed wire fences, are dangerous because of the possibility of infection.

Disorders of the legs and feet that can cause lameness include splints, abnormal growths on the cannon bone of the leg; bog spavin, an enlargement at the hock through accumulation of fluid; and bone spavin, a bony enlargement at the hock. Founder (laminitis) is a very serious and painful disorder that affects blood vessels in the foot and eventually causes the hoof to become deformed. It is caused by the horse's overeating, overworking, or drinking too much cold water when hot. Thrush is an infection of the frog (a structure on the bottom of the foot) caused by unsanitary conditions and lack of exercise; it can cause the animal to become lame.

What Are Some Common Signs of Illness in Horses?

Signs of illness in a horse include loss of appetite, lack of vigor (active physical strength), mucous or bloody discharge from the eyes or nose, swellings or sores on the body, and hot legs or feet. A fast or slow breathing rate or pulse rate may also be a sign of illness. Normally, a resting horse breathes from 8 to 16 times per minute and has a pulse rate of from 30 to 40 beats per minute.

One of the most common medical complaints horses suffer is colic. Colic is pain in the horse’s abdomen. It can be caused by a number of things, some very serious. Signs of colic can include sweating, loss of appetite, teeth grinding, rolling, looking at or kicking the flank, and depression. Colic can be fatal, so it must be treated promptly.

Other signs that a horse is ill can include a high temperature, flared nostrils, and poor blood flow to the gums. But any change in the condition or behavior of a horse can be a sign that the horse is not well. If you are worried about your horse’s health, always call a veterinarian immediately.

What Routine Veterinary Care Is Needed?

Routine veterinary care will help your horse live a long and healthy life. You should have your horse examined by a vet at least once or twice a year. One difference between medical care for horses and for other pets is that usually the horse vet will come to your animal rather than the other way around.

Horses need vaccinations against tetanus and influenza. Depending on where you live, your veterinarian may also suggest having your horse vaccinated for such diseases as rabies or West Nile virus. When needed, horses should receive medicine to expel worms (internal parasites).

Sometimes, a horse’s teeth must be floated, or filed down, to remove sharp edges. Either a vet or an equine dentist can do this.

Most horses also need shoes. All horses should have their hoofs trimmed regularly. A registered farrier can perform this job.

Breeds of Horses

There are at least 60 recognized breeds of horses throughout the world. Some breeds, such as the Tennessee Walking Horse, are relatively new; others date back hundreds of years. Many breeds, such as the Great Horse that carried knights in armor, are extinct.

Some breeds, such as the Lippizan, have relatively few members. Others, such as the Quarter Horse, Thoroughbred, and Standardbred, number more than 100,000 horses each in the United States alone. Some breeds are concentrated in a small area—for instance the Chincoteague and Assateague ponies of the islands off Virginia and Maryland. A few breeds, such as the Arabian, have spread far from their original home and have contributed to the bloodlines of many other breeds.

In the United States and most other countries, each of the popular breeds is represented by a breed registry association. The association for an established breed keeps records showing the ancestry of each horse it accepts for registration. These records show descent from the breed's foundation stock (the horses on which the breed is based); they form the stud book for the breed. A purebred horse is one whose sire and dam are both registered as members of the same breed. A crossbred horse is one whose sire and dam are registered in the stud books of two different breeds.

Horses of a particular breed have a particular breed character—a set of characteristics that distinguishes them from horses of other breeds and is passed on from one generation to the next. Breeders of some types of horses are trying to establish new breeds. They are trying to breed horses that will have a clearly defined breed character and will always “breed true” (pass on their distinguishing characteristics).

Many new or potential breeds in the United States are based primarily on color—for example, the American Albino, American Creme Horse (a cream-colored work horse), Pinto, Palomino, and such spotted types as the Colorado Ranger, Morocco Spotted Horse, and Pony of the Americas. Horses registered in a classification based on color often carry double registry; they are also usually registered members of an established breed based on other characteristics. The Missouri Fox Trotting Horse and the Paso Fino, or Peruvian Paso, are among the few types of horses characterized chiefly by their gait. (The fox trot is a slow, broken trot in which the hind foot hits just before the forefoot. The paso fino is somewhat similar to the pace and provides a smooth ride.)

Classification

Horses can be classified by size and build as light horses, ponies, and draft horses.

Light Horses

belong to breeds whose members average 14–2 to 17 hands in height and weigh an average of 900 to 1,400 pounds (400 to 635 kg).

Ponies

belong to breeds whose members average less than 14–2 hands in height and weigh, on the average, 500 to 900 pounds (225 to 400 kg). (Some individual horses belonging to full-size breeds may be this small, but they are not classified as ponies.)

Draft Horses

belong to breeds whose members average 14–2 to 17–2 hands in height and weigh 1,400 pounds (635 kg) or more.

Light horses and ponies are sometimes further classified, by use, into riding horses, race horses, and driving horses.

Riding Horses

include pleasure horses, used for ordinary recreational riding; show horses; stock horses, the “cow ponies” or ranch horses of the western United States; polo ponies; and hunters and jumpers. .) Most horses used for simple leisure-time riding in the United States are of mixed ancestry.

Race Horses

of the United States include Thoroughbreds, Standardbreds, and Quarter Horses. .) Horses used for steeplechases (races over obstacles) are classified as riding horses.

Driving Horses

are light horses or ponies that pull vehicles for purposes other than racing. Once a primary means of transportation, they are now driven mainly in horse shows. Light horses in this classification are of three types—showy, powerful heavy harness horses, or carriage horses (the Hackney breed is used); graceful fine harness horses (the American Saddle Horse is most often used); and speedy roadsters (the Standardbred is commonly used). Ponies used for driving are classified as harness show ponies and heavy harness ponies.

Light Horses

Most of these breeds are fast, showy, or both; they are used for riding, racing, and driving. The light horse breeds are thought to derive ultimately from the Arabian and Barb bloodlines. Important breeds include:

American Saddle Horse, or Saddlebred,

a breed developed in Kentucky in the 1800's as a riding horse and once known as the Kentucky Saddler. Thoroughbred stock and some Standardbred and Morgan stock contributed to its bloodline. The American Saddle Horse has a small head, long neck, short back, and long, sloping pasterns. It carries itself proudly and has springy, comfortable gaits with high leg action. Chestnut, bay, brown, and black are preferred colors.

American Saddle Horses are bred as show horses, though most are eventually used outside the show ring as pleasure horses. Three-gaited Saddlebreds are shown with a clipped or roached (upright) mane and shortened tail. Five-gaited Saddlebreds are shown with full mane and tail. As fine harness horses, Saddlebreds are shown under harness, at a walk and trot; they are shown with full mane and tail.

Andalusian, or Andalusian Barb,

a breed developed in Spain, largely from Barb stock brought there by the Moors. The Andalusian has a convex or straight face; short, thick, sturdy legs; sloping hindquarters; and a low-set tail. Usual colors are gray, black, and bay. Andalusians have a proud bearing and were noted as parade horses in medieval Europe. They have contributed to the bloodlines of most important European breeds, including the Hackney and Lippizan, and to the bloodlines of the Criollo horses and mustangs of the Americas.

Appaloosa,

a breed developed by the Nez Percé Indians of the Palouse River basin in Washington and Idaho. Horses bearing the Appaloosa color pattern—white areas with dark spots, over some or all of the body—are depicted in prehistoric European art. The Nez Percés obtained horses with this coloring from Spanish stock about 1730. They bred them for strength and endurance, as well as for color, to create a distinctive horse suited for battle, races, and buffalo hunts. Their stock was scattered after their defeat by the U.S. Army in 1877, but in the 1930's breeders began trying to revive the breed.

Appaloosas have mottled black and white skin and vertically striped hooves. The color pattern is often that of a white spotted “blanket” over loin and hips. The body type usually resembles that of the Quarter Horse. Appaloosas are noted for their good dispositions. They are popular as stock horses, pleasure horses, and parade horses. They are sometimes raced in special Appaloosa races.

Arabian, or Arab,

generally considered the ancestor of most other light horse breeds. This breed was developed by the Bedouins of the Arabian deserts, who needed a fast, strong riding horse that could hold up over long distances, sometimes without food or water. The foundation stock was probably horses the Bedouins got from the Egyptians or Libyans. The breed character was established by the seventh century A.D. Arabians are small horses, usually 14 to 15 hands high, with very short backs. (They usually have one less lumbar [back] vertebra and one or two fewer tail vertebrae than horses of most other breeds.) They have delicate heads, dished (concave) at the forehead. The eyes are prominent and set far apart. Arabians are mainly bay, gray, or chestnut; the skin is always black.

Arabians are known for their beauty, gentleness, and endurance. They are used mainly as riding horses. They excel at long-distance racing and in endurance. Arabians have made great contributions to the bloodlines of modern breeds of light horses and are often used as breeding stock to produce superior horses of mixed breeding.

What Kind of Personality Might an Arabian Horse Have?

Most Arabian horses are loyal animals that strive to please the humans who care for them. Because Arabians were bred and raised in close contact with humans from earliest times, these horses have a great ability to bond with humans. Their affectionate nature makes them a good family horse.

Arabians also make great competitors in horse shows. They are known for their endurance, balance, agility, speed, and grace.

Just like horses of any other breed, each Arabian is different, with its own personality. You will find warm, mischievous, stand-offish, and affectionate Arabians. Some Arabians are easily startled, though others are not. Some have long attention spans, and others have short attention spans.

What Should You Look for When Choosing an Arabian Horse?

If you are buying a family horse, then the horse’s personality and its overall appearance will be important. Do you like the horse’s color, head, and expression? Do you feel an attraction to the horse? Does the horse have any bad habits?

Ask the owner or handler about the horse’s health, and ask an adult to carefully examine the horse. During this exam, that adult should be concerned if any pain, fear, anger, sluggishness, or unusual sleepiness is sensed in the horse.

Ask about the horse’s registration. Even if its registration is not important to you, it may be important to a future buyer should you decide to sell the horse.

Ask about the horse’s training history. See how the horse performs with the owner or handler, then “test ride” the horse yourself.

Barb,

a hardy breed developed in northwestern Africa, a region once called Barbary. The Barb was imported into Spain in the ninth century, where it influenced development of the Andalusian breed and through it many of the other breeds of Europe and the Americas. The Barb has a long head, flat shoulders, and sloping rump. The tail is set low. Color may be bay, brown, chestnut, black, or gray.

Cleveland Bay,

developed as a strong coach horse, in the Cleveland district of Yorkshire, England. The modern Cleveland Bay is a large horse with a long neck, long body, and short, sturdy legs. It is always solid bay with black legs, mane, and tail. It is used as a riding and work horse.

Criollo,

a group of very similar breeds found in South American countries, developed largely from Andalusian horses brought to Argentina by the Spanish in the 1500's. The Criollo horses are said to be among the hardiest modern breeds. They have short, thick necks; short backs; and strong legs. The Criollo breeds of some areas—for instance, the Galiceño breed of Mexico—are pony-size. Criollos may be almost any color or pattern.

Hackney,

a breed developed in England in the 1700's from native trotters crossed with Thoroughbreds. Hackneys became popular in the United States as carriage horses in the 1890's. They are short-legged and heavy yet stylish, with naturally high leg action. Hackneys are usually chestnut, bay, or brown; some are roan or black. They are used in harness, mainly in horse shows, and are shown with docked (cut-short) tail and thinned mane. Hackneys are also bred in a small size as Hackney ponies, used for the same purposes.

Lippiran, or Uppizaner,

a breed developed from Arabian and Andalusian horses at a royal stud farm in Lippiza (or Lipitsa), near Trieste. The breed was founded in the 16th century by Emperor Maximilian II of Austria. Most Lippizans are black or gray when foaled and turn white when four to six years old or older; some Lippizans are bay, chestnut, or roan. Lippizans mature late but are very long-lived. Many are still active past 20. Lippizans have large heads, strong necks, and compact bodies.

At the Spanish Riding School established by Maximilian in Vienna, Lippizan stallions were trained to execute the complicated maneuvers known as dressage. They became noted throughout Europe as parade horses. The school still exists, and Lippizan stallions have given exhibition performances in many countries. In parts of Europe Lippizans are also used in harness for exhibitions, as saddle horses, and for farm work.

Morgan,

a breed of horses developed in Vermont, descended from the sire Justin Morgan (foaled about 1790). Justin Morgan, whose ancestors probably included Thoroughbreds, was a small dark bay with a short back, thick neck, thin straight legs, and a proud bearing. He was a fast trotter, stylish parade horse, and great sprinter. In addition, he could outpull any horse his weight (and many heavier). Because of their versatility, his descendants were in much demand among settlers of the early West. Morgans are also noted for their easy-going temperament, endurance, and hardiness. They are usually bay, brown, black, or chestnut. Morgans have influenced the bloodlines of such American breeds as the Standardbred, American Saddle Horse, and Tennessee Walking Horse.

Quarter Horse,

a breed developed as a short-distance race horse in colonial Virginia and the Carolinas and later, in the mid-1800's, in Texas. It is the leading breed of horse being bred in the United States. Quarter Horses were named for their speed over a quarter-mile (400-m) distance. The breed's main ancestors were probably Indian ponies and Criollos (descended from Andalusians and Barbs imported by the Spanish) and Thoroughbreds (imported by the English). Quarter Horses were developed in their modern form in the southwestern range country. Cattlemen there wanted a strong, quick-starting, easy-handling horse that could be used to work cattle but could also be raced.

The Quarter Horse has a short head, short back, short legs, and powerfully muscled body. It may be almost any color or pattern except pinto, Appaloosa, or albino. Quarter Horses are the main purebreds used as stock horses (“cow ponies”) and are also used for quarter-mile racing. They are popular pleasure horses.

Spanish Mustang,

a small group of horses considered the most direct descendants of those brought to America by the Spanish. .) Development of the breed began in Wyoming in the 1920's. These short, hardy horses may be of almost any color. They have short backs, with one less vertebra than horses of most other breeds, and a low-set tail.

Standardbred,

a breed developed as a roadster (fast, light harness horse) in the eastern United States in the mid-1800's. Its ancestors were Thoroughbreds that were crossed with trotters and pacers descended from Hackneys, Morgans, and other breeds. The name derives from a former registration requirement that horses of this breed meet a performance standard—trotting one mile (1,600 m) in 2 minutes 30 seconds or pacing that distance in 2 minutes 25 seconds. (The world's record for both is less than 2 minutes.)

Standardbreds are smaller and more rugged than Thoroughbreds and have great stamina. They are usually bay, brown, chestnut, or black. They are used in harness races as either trotters or pacers (according to training and inborn inclination). In horse shows they are used as roadsters, meaning that they are driven at a trot only.

Tennessee Walking Horse,

a breed developed in Tennessee in the late 1800's from strains including the Thoroughbred, Standardbred, Morgan, and American Saddle Horse. Tennessee Walking Horses were bred for the stamina and easy gaits needed in an everyday riding horse by owners of large plantations. The running walk, a gliding gait in which the hind foot hits ahead of the track of the front foot, is characteristic. The horse's head bobs in rhythm as it walks. These horses are larger and more rugged than American Saddle Horses. They may be almost any color. They are used as show horses or pleasure horses.

Thoroughbred,

a breed developed in England for racing in the late 1600's and early 1700's. Its main bloodlines are those of native mares, of Barb mares imported for the royal stable, and of three imported stallions. The imported stallions were the Byerly Turk, ancestor of Herod; the Darley Arabian, ancestor of Eclipse; and the Godolphin Barb (or Goldolphin Arabian), ancestor of Matchem. Herod, Eclipse, and Matchem are the breed's foundation sires; all Thoroughbreds trace their ancestry to one of these three horses.

Thoroughbreds have long, straight, muscular legs, a small head, and a long, narrow body. They typically have a nervous temperament. Colors are bay, brown, chestnut, black, and sometimes gray. The breed has been used to improve nearly all other modern breeds. Besides being raced, Thoroughbreds (or horses with predominantly Thoroughbred blood) are popular as breeding stock for stock horses, polo ponies, hunters, and jumpers.

Are Light Horses Grouped by Color?

Light horses are sometimes grouped according to color instead of by breed. Such groupings include palominos and albinos.

Breeders in the United States and Mexico developed the palomino line. Palominos have a golden coat and a light blond or silvery mane and tail. Most palominos have white only on the face and on the lower legs. Almost every breed except the thoroughbred has some horses with palomino coloring. A palomino mare and stallion often produce a foal of another color.

A true albino is an animal that, because of heredity, has no color in its eyes, hair, or skin. Its offspring also lack color. Some horse breeders, however, use the word albino to describe any horse with a white or pale-colored coat. But, these albino horses are not true albinos, as they all have some color that their offspring can inherit. One kind of horse called an albino has a pink skin, ivory coat, white mane, and blue eyes. Another kind has pink skin, a white coat, and brown eyes.

Ponies

Many of the pony breeds are based on the Celtic pony of prehistoric Europe, a sturdy animal about 12 hands high with a small, short head. Some types of horses commonly called “ponies”—polo ponies, cow ponies, and Indian ponies—are really full-size horses.

Ponies are small relatives of the horse.Chincoteague Ponies and Assateague Ponies,

native ponies of the islands off Virginia and Maryland, said to have inhabited these islands since colonial times. Their heads are as large as those of full-size horses; they may really be stunted horses, descended from strays of colonial days. Many are pintos.

Connemara Pony,

a breed of Ireland noted for jumping ability and hardiness. The Connemara pony is one of the largest pony breeds, averaging 14 hands. It is usually gray or black but may be almost any color except pinto. It is used as a jumper, harness show horse, and cart horse.

Galiceño,

a small Criollo-type horse that originated in the Spanish province of Galicia. Galiceños may be any color except pinto or albino. Though of pony size, they resemble full-size horses in their proportions and gaits. In addition to a walk, trot, and canter, they perform a fast running walk like that of the Tennessee Walking Horse. In Mexico Galiceños are used as cart horses. Importation into the United States, where they are used chiefly for riding, began in the late 1950's.

Gotland Pony,

a small horse native to the island of Gotland, Sweden. Gotlands may be any color except pinto. They are used as pleasure horses and for pony harness racing.

Hackney Pony,

a pony breed of the Hackney Horse used in horse shows as a harness pony.

Pony of the Americas (often Abbreviated POA),

a breed developed in the United States in the 1950's. These tall, sturdy ponies have Appaloosa coloring and were developed largely from Appaloosa stock. They also show some Quarter Horse and Arabian characteristics. Ponies of the Americas are used chiefly as Western-style pleasure horses for older children and teenagers.

Shetland Pony,

a breed native to the Shetland Islands north of Scotland, established as early as the sixth century. It is the smallest pony breed (commonly 10 hands high) and one of the oldest of modern breeds of horses. It may be brown, gray, black, chestnut, or any of these colors spotted with white. It is used as a pack pony and, because of its gentle disposition, as a pleasure horse for children.

Welsh Pony,

a breed native to the mountains of Wales. Welsh ponies are short-backed and muscular, fast and flashy at the trot, and enduring. They may be any color except pinto. They are used for riding and driving.

Draft Horses

Draft horses are used mainly to pull loads. They are compact and relatively short-legged. The draft breeds are based on the large, black, hairy Flemish horse native to Europe in ancient times. Its descendants, the Flemish Great Horse and the English Great Horse, carried the heavily armored knights of the Middle Ages.

The number of draft horses in the United States has declined sharply from its peak in 1915 as tractors and trucks have taken over the heavy work. The main breeds are:

Belgian,

a massive horse developed in Belgium from the native Flemish Great Horse. Belgians are the widest, lowest, and most compact of the draft breeds. They are 15–2 to 17 hands high, and weigh from 1,900 to 2,200 pounds (860 to 1,000 kg). Belgians are known for their quiet temperament. Bay, chestnut, and roan are the main colors.

Clydesdale,

a breed developed in the valley (dale) of the River Clyde in Scotland, from Flemish and English stock. It is rangier than the other draft breeds. Clydesdales have much feather at the back of the lower legs. They are most often bay or brown with white markings. Clydesdales are known for their energy, flashiness, and high leg action. They are often driven in exhibitions.

Percheron,

a breed developed in France, in a district called La Perche, from Flemish and Arabian strains. Percherons have a more refined head than do other draft breeds and have high leg action. They are long-lived and good-natured. Percherons are usually black or gray.

Shire,

a massive English breed directly descended from the English Great Horse of the Middle Ages. It is the largest modern draft breed, commonly 16 to 17–2 hands high, and stallions often weigh more than 2,000 pounds (910 kg). The legs are heavily feathered. Shires are usually bay, brown, or black with white markings.

Suffolk,

the smallest common draft breed, developed in England. Suffolks are chunky, chestnut-colored horses, 15–2 to 16–2 hands high. They have a good disposition and are noted for gameness.

Care and Handling

In the United States, most horses are fed some combination of pasture grass, hay (often timothy, alfalfa, or clover hay), and grain (oats, corn, barley, or wheat). The amount and kind of feed a horse needs depend on its age, size, condition, and work. Supplemental protein, vitamins, and minerals are often added to balance the diet.

Foals are often started on grain and hay when several weeks old and are usually fully weaned at about six months of age. An average mature riding horse doing light or medium work needs 6 to 12 pounds (2.7 to 5.4 kg) of grain and 10 to 20 pounds (4.5 to 9 kg) of hay a day. A horse free to graze daily in a good pasture is fed less hay or none at all. Weanlings (horses just weaned) and horses doing strenuous work (for example, racing) are fed more grain than others. Horses not being worked are not usually fed grain and may just be pastured without hay. Horses need about 3 ounces (85 g) of salt and 12 gallons (45 l) of water a day.

What Are Your Responsibilities as an Owner?

As an owner, you need to make sure that you:

Feed and shelter your horse properly

Keep your horse and its living quarters clean

Exercise your horse regularly

Groom your horse regularly

Have your horse examined by a veterinarian at least once or twice a year

Consult a vet if your horse appears to be ill

Owning a horse is a long-term commitment. Horses can live 25 to 30 years, or even longer. When you buy or adopt a horse, you must be sure that you can take care of it for that long. Otherwise, you must be prepared to find a new owner for the horse if the time comes when you can no longer give the animal the attention it deserves. A horse is a loyal companion and a dependable animal for riding, sport, and work, and it deserves your respect and care.

Stabling

A stable should be fire-resistant, well ventilated, and easily cleaned. A large stable often has two rows of stalls with a wide hallway between them. It may include a tack room for storing saddles, bridles, and other stable equipment. Each horse is kept in a separate stall (except in the case of a mare and foal). In a box stall, the entrance can be closed off and the horse left loose within the stall. The tie stall is a narrow stall, open at one end, in which the horse stands tied. The floor of the stall is usually clay or wood. Straw bedding or other absorbent material on the floor absorbs urine and the liquids in the manure.

What Is the Difference Between a Pasture, a Paddock, and a Stable?

A pasture is a fenced, grassy field or hillside on which horses can live and feed. A paddock is a smaller, enclosed field near a stable or house. A stable is a building fitted with stalls, where horses are kept. Most stables also have a storage area for feed and an area for tack—that is, saddles and other riding equipment.

A horse that lives without a stable needs a run-in shed for shelter from the hot sun and from inclement weather. A run-in shed is a rectangular shelter that has three sides enclosed and one side open. Such a shelter should be big enough to hold all the horses that use the pasture or paddock.

Each type of living place—pasture, paddock, or stable—has some advantages for the horses kept there. Most people choose where to keep their horses based on what is most practical.

What Should a Stall Look Like?

A stall, which is an individual place for one horse in a stable, should measure at least 10 feet by 12 feet (3 meters by 3.5 meters). It should be light, dry, and well ventilated. If possible, the stall should have a window, which improves airflow. The door to the stall should be a Dutch door—a door that is divided horizontally. When the bottom half of this door is closed, the horse is still able to poke its head out of the top half of the door. The horse can see what is happening and interact with its stablemates (if it has any). This helps prevent the horse from becoming bored.

The best flooring for a stall is clay or finely ground cinders. But cement or wooden floors covered with rubber mats can be used.

Bedding can be made of such materials as wood shavings, sawdust, straw, or peat moss. It should be spread at least 1 foot (30 centimeters) thick. Although bedding is spread on the floor of a horse’s stall, often a horse may sleep standing up. Its eyes will still be half-open as it stands, dozing.

Exercise

Horses need daily exercise. If kept stabled all day they should be ridden or driven for about an hour or turned out to pasture at night.

What Kinds of Exercise or Play Are Needed?

The amount of exercise an Arabian horse needs depends on where it lives. An Arabian that lives in a stall needs daily riding exercise and a chance to run on its own in an enclosed area. An Arabian that lives in a paddock might not need to be taken out for extra exercise every day, but it should be ridden at least three or four times a week. An Arabian that lives in a pasture has enough space to get the free exercise it needs, but it still needs to be ridden regularly.

Another form of exercise for a horse is called lungeing. With this maneuver, a person stands in the middle of an imaginary circle with the horse on a rope around 30 feet (9 meters) long; the horse moves around the circle at a walk, trot, or canter.

Some Arabians love to play with toys. One favorite is a “jolly ball,” a large plastic ball with a handle the horse can grip in its mouth.

Grooming and Shoeing

Daily grooming of the horse's coat keeps it healthy and improves muscle tone. Grooming is usually done with a curry comb (applied gently with a circular motion, to loosen dirt and dead hair), a dandy brush (a stiff brush), and finally a body brush (soft brush). A comb may be used on mane and tail. A hoof pick is used to clean the bottom of the feet.

Shoes protect the horse's hooves on hard surfaces. They can be varied in form and weight to correct faulty gaits or compensate for defective foot structure. Shoes must be reset or replaced every six to eight weeks. A horse's hoof grows as much as 1/2 inch (1.3 cm) a month and must be nipped off and leveled every six to eight weeks on horses that wear shoes or run only on pasture.

Daily grooming keeps a horse healthy and improves its muscle tone.How Do You Groom a Horse?

Grooming helps keep a horse’s coat healthy and improves a horse’s appearance. It is also an excellent way to check a horse for any cuts or irritations on its skin. Horses kept in a stable should be groomed daily with a body brush, a mane and tail comb, and a currycomb.

Rubbing a horse’s coat with a currycomb brings dirt to the surface and gives the coat a healthy glow. Brushing removes dirt and dandruff. After brushing, a horse should be wiped down with a soft cloth.

A water brush and sponges are useful to have in your horse’s basic grooming kit. When used wet, a water brush helps train the hairs of the tail and mane to lie flat. Sponges are used to wipe the horse’s eyes, nostrils, and also around the dock, which is the thick, fleshy covering over the horse’s tail bones at the top of its tail. A horse’s hoofs should be checked daily, as well.

Why Does a Horse Need Shoes?

Shoes protect the feet of horses that run or work. Light shoes that weigh about 8 ounces (230 grams) and use only a few nails make the best shoes for most horses. Horses need new shoes every four to eight weeks, depending on how fast their shoes wear out and how fast their hoofs grow.

Tennessee walking horses wear shoes weighted in the toes to help them raise their feet high. Race horses wear very light shoes. Shoes for winter or for high mountain trails have grips to help keep the horse from slipping on ice or snow.

Most horseshoes are made of steel or aluminum. They are nailed to the horse’s hoofs. A farrier, or blacksmith, does this type of work. When the shoe is nailed on properly, it does not hurt the horse. Hoofs are made of keratin (KEHR uh tihn), which is the same material that human fingernails and toenails are made of. Trimming a horse’s hoofs and nailing shoes to them does not hurt any more than cutting our own nails, and it actually spares the horse a lot of pain from injuries and hoof diseases.

Horseback Riding

There are two basic styles of riding in the United States: English, in which a saddle with a relatively flat seat is used, and Western, in which a deep-seated saddle is used.

Equipment

Bridles, saddles, and other equipment used for riding are, collectively, called tack.

Bridles

A bridle consists of a headpiece (the headstall), a bit, and reins. The bit, held in the horse's mouth, is used to control the animal's movements. It, in turn, is controlled by the reins, held by the rider.

There are two main kinds of bits. The snaffle bit is a straight bit without shanks and is often jointed in the middle. A pull on the reins exerts direct pressure on the horse's mouth. The snaffle is a very mild bit. It is used for training horses and for jumpers, race horses, and other light horses where not much restraint or fine cueing is needed. The curb bit has a shank on each side, to the ends of which the reins are attached. A slight pull on the reins exerts pressure on the horse's chin, via a chin strap or chain, and on the inside of the horse's mouth.

A full bridle, used in formal English-style riding, has both a snaffle and a curb bit with a headstall for each. A single bridle is a bridle with only one bit. A double-rein bridle is a full or single bridle with two sets of reins; the rider holds four reins—two from each side. The single-rein bridle has only one set of reins. A Pelham bridle is a single bridle with a Pelham curb bit. It has a second set of reins attached to the upper shank of the bit; these function as snaffle reins. The Pelham bridle is common in English pleasure riding. A single-rein bridle with a curb bit is standard in Western riding in most parts of the United States.

Halters and Hackamores

A halter has no bit and is used to lead and to tie horses. A hackamore, in its simplest form, is similar to a bridle but instead of a bit uses a noseband to squeeze the nose and jaw when the reins are pulled. Hackamores are widely used in training young horses; they are also used on horses with injured mouths and should be used by heavy-handed riders.

Saddles

The English-style saddle is a light saddle with a relatively flat seat. It is used for jumping, Thoroughbred racing, polo, and English-style show and pleasure riding. The lightest version, used for racing, weighs up to 2 pounds (900 g).

The Western saddle usually weighs about 40 pounds (18 kg). It has a comparatively high back and front with a horn atop the front. This saddle was developed as a secure, comfortable, all-day saddle for the working cowboy. A saddle blanket underneath the saddle protects the horse's back against getting sore.

Technique

In both English and Western riding the aim is harmony of horse and rider. Riders learn to balance themselves in accord with their horses' movements. They also learn to control the direction, speed, and type of movement by subtle use of pressure on the bit through the reins, pressure of their legs, position of their body, and sometimes the sound of their voice.

Skills

The beginning rider learns how to mount and dismount, turn, back up, and ride at a walk, trot, and, finally, canter. The English-style rider learns to post a trot—to move up and down in time with the two-beat rhythm of the gait. Both English and Western riders learn to sit a canter.

The advanced English rider may learn the techniques of cueing a horse to perform dressage maneuvers (precision movements) or may learn a specialty such as jumping or riding show horses.

The advanced Western-style rider may learn the special skills involved in working cattle or showing in Western horse show events. One specialty popular among female Western-style riders is barrel-racing, in which contestants are timed as they complete a cloverleaf-shaped course laid out around three barrels.

Position In the Saddle

Various “seats”—positions in the saddle—have been developed for different styles of riding (English or Western) and different types of horses (gaited horses, racers, jumpers, etc.). Most English-style riders in the United States use the balanced, or modified forward, seat—they sit in the middle of the saddle on their pelvic bones with knees bent and feet placed in the stirrups so that their weight is supported on the balls of the feet. They incline the upper body forward as the horse moves, increasing the degree of inclination as the horse moves at a faster pace.

A show seat, saddle seat, or classical seat, in which the rider is more erect and rides with longer stirrups, is used in horse show riding. The jockey, or flat-racing, seat employs stirrups so short that the rider's knees are even with the horse's withers and the rider hunches over the withers and neck. The Western-style rider normally rides erect with longer stirrups than the English-style rider.

Holding the Reins

The reins are held in either hand or both hands in English-style riding, but in only one hand—usually the left—in Western-style. Western-style riders leave more slack in the reins than is done in most English-style riding.

Giving Signals

The rider's hands, legs, weight, and voice are called aids. They help signal the direction, speed, and type of movement the rider wishes the horse to adopt. To make the horse move forward, for example, the rider squeezes the horse with his legs, shifts his weight forward, and loosens the reins. In Western-style riding, the rider turns his horse by neck-reining—moving his hand to one side, so that one rein presses against the side of the horse's neck; the horse turns away from the rein. For some cues the advanced rider may use artificial aids such as spurs or whip. The signals given by an advanced rider on a well-trained horse are so subtle that few observers can detect them.

Training the Horse

The kind of training given a horse and the age at which various phases are begun vary greatly with the type, breed, and future use of the horse. For example, Thoroughbreds to be used for flat racing need learn only how to race under saddle at a gallop. They are often raced as two-year-olds. Quarter Horses to be used in working cattle are not usually ridden regularly until they are three. They may not become accomplished cow ponies until they are five or six, an age at which most Thoroughbreds are nearing retirement.

Training of the young horse to tolerate handling by humans should begin shortly after the foal is born. The foal is soon halter-broken (accustomed to a halter) and is taught how to lead (follow when led). Formal training of the average riding horse in the United States usually starts when the horse is two or three years old. The early phase of training may include teaching the horse how to longe—to work in a circle about the trainer, who holds a line attached to the horse. The horse learns to wear a bridle or hackamore and a saddle or harness. It is then taught to respond to signals. Further training may be given to make the horse's movements more graceful.

English-style Riding

Training of horses used in English-style riding may culminate in the learning of special gaits or of skills such as those used in dressage, polo, or jumping. Simple dressage maneuvers are sometimes taught as general suppling exercises. Advanced dressage, also known as haute école, is seen in exhibitions and is part of the Olympic Games competitions. It includes such difficult maneuvers as the piaffe, a trot in place; the passage, a trot with rhythmic hesitation; and the levade, in which the horse balances on its hind legs.

Western-style Riding

Horses used in Western-style riding were once left untrained until they were at least four; then they were “broken”—ridden until they stopped bucking. Training has become more gradual, and most Western horses are under saddle at two without ever having bucked.

A horse used for Western riding must learn to neck-rein in response to even a very slight signal. Advanced training may include training in skills to be used in working cattle or in competitions at rodeos. These skills include such specialties as that of the reining horse, trained to perform a quick pivot, a spin, or other sudden change of speed and direction at a slight pressure of the reins. A rope horse (used for steer- or calf-roping) is trained to “work the rope” after its rider has roped the animal, keeping the rope from the animal to saddle horn taut. The cutting horse is trained to “cut out” (separate) a cow from the herd and prevent it from returning.

What About Training a Horse?

Training a horse takes skill and patience. Ideally, it should begin when the animal is a foal, which is a horse that is younger than 1 year old. A trainer must get a foal used to a halter. A halter is a leather or nylon device that fits around the horse’s head and attaches to a lead rope (a rope used for leading the horse). After the horse is 1 year old, a trainer gradually gets the horse used to having a saddle on its back. Then the trainer can get on the horse’s back and ride the animal for a few steps. Rides get longer as the horse gets used to being ridden.

After the horse has learned to follow the basic signals of a rider, such as stop, go, and slow down, it can be trained for certain sports. These sports might include racing; dressage (dreh SAZH), in which a rider guides a horse through various paces and movements without using reins or noticeable signals; or show jumping, an exhibition of skill in riding a horse over various obstacles.

Horse Shows

Horse shows are regular and popular events in the United States, Canada, Latin America, and Europe. The largest shows in North America, all annual shows, are the Washington International Horse Show, Landover, Maryland; the National Horse Show, East Rutherford, New Jersey; the American Royal Horse Show, Kansas City, Missouri; and the horse show of the Royal Agricultural Winter Fair, Toronto, Canada. In the United States, many horse shows are sponsored by the American Horse Shows Association and the various breed associations. There are many local shows having similar rules but not recognized by these associations.

Ribbons, trophies, or cash prizes are awarded. In some events (or classes) they are awarded mainly on the basis of the horse's appearance; in others, mainly on its performance. In most classes both appearance and performance are judged. Horses of the same breed or same gaits or actions compete against each other. In an equitation class, the exhibitor's horsemanship, but not the horse itself, is judged.

Classes may also differ in required age, sex, or experience of horse or rider, or in a combination of these.

What Is a Horse Show Like?

Horse shows give you a chance to demonstrate your skill as a rider and trainer, as well as your horse’s breeding and ability. Most shows are sponsored by a breed or performance association or local horse group.

Shows can be grouped into three categories: (1) performance, (2) breeding, and (3) equitation (EHK wuh TAY shuhn), or horsemanship.

In a performance competition, the horses and riders demonstrate various skills. For example, a show may include jumping events or events in which a horse is meant to move with a specific gait.

In a breeding competition, all of the horses in the event are of the same breed. The judges rank the horses based on which they feel best represent the physical type necessary for that breed.

In an equitation competition, the contestants ride their horses around a ring. Competitors are judged on how well they ride and control their horse.

History

The horse family preceded humans on earth by some 50,000,000 years. Fossil remains of members of this family are found in both the Eastern and the Western Hemisphere. The fossils found in North America provide one of the most complete records of animal evolution.

Horses have grown much larger since their Eohippus days.

The earliest known ancestor of the horse was Eohippus, or Hyracotherium, present 55 to 55 million years ago, in the early Eocene epoch. There were several species of Eohippus, the smallest about 10 inches (25 cm) high. Eohippus had 44 teeth, so constructed that the animal could have eaten only soft leaves and fruit. Through millions of years, changes took place in the descendants of Eohippus. Their legs and feet became more and more adapted to speed, and their teeth to chewing coarse vegetation. The most successful adaptations took place among the North American species. Branches of the horse family in other parts of the world died out completely.

Merychippus, a primitive North American horse of the Miocene epoch, was perhaps the first grazing member of the family. By the end of the Pliocene epoch, Equus, the modern type of horse, appeared in what is now the United States. Equus spread to all continents except Australia over land bridges then in existence. After the end of the Pleistocene epoch (Ice Age), horses disappeared from the Western Hemisphere.

Early humans hunted horses for food. In early historic times humans tamed the horse and mounted it, and for many centuries the horse was important in military conquest and in the building of the great civilizations. The first domestic horses appeared in China and in the Tigris-Euphrates Valley in southwestern Asia, between 3000 and 2000 B.C. By 1000 B.C. domestic horses were found all over Asia, Europe, and North Africa.

As a symbol of conquest, the horse soon became identified with the ruling classes. Kings and noblemen rode horseback and in chariots for pleasure, and watched horse and chariot races.

Horses could not be utilized fully for pulling until the collar harness was invented. The Chinese are believed to have invented this type of harness in the fifth century A.D.; it reached Europe in about the 10th century.

Horses were introduced into America by 16th-century Spanish explorers, and were later brought in by European settlers. American Indians soon learned the value of horses for war and hunting, and obtained them from the Europeans through trading or theft. Many horses escaped, and at one time vast herds of wild horses roamed the western Plains. The horse-drawn stagecoach provided transportation and communication before the days of railways and automobiles. In some areas the stagecoach served until the early years of the 20th century.

Although horses were used for farm work in England in the early Middle Ages, it was on the vast farms and ranches of America that horses proved essential in pulling plows and heavy wagons, and in herding cattle. In cities, horses provided power for hauling wagons and streetcars. Horses were also used for pulling canal boats.

The widespread use of motorized vehicles and farm implements in the 20th century marked the decline of the horse as a work animal. However, the work horse has retained its importance in nonindustrialized countries. In the United States, the stock horse is still used for ranch work, and the use of horses for recreation and sport has increased steadily since the 1950's. Horseback riding, horse shows, hunting on horseback, and horse racing are enjoyed in many parts of the world.